Anyone who has seen one of these "half-tone" blocks covered with minute depressions so slight that they can scarcely be seen, yet so perfect that a beautiful print can be obtained from them, will realise the wonderful power of this electrolytic process, the marvellous accuracy with which the original is copied, and the unerring way in which the electric current carries the particles of copper into every one of the myriad recesses in the wax.
Another specimen of the marvellous work of this system is the wax cylinder of the phonograph. The sound is produced by a needle trailing along a groove of varying depth cut in the surface of the cylinder. This groove forms a spiral, passing round and round like the thread of a screw, and it encircles the cylinder one hundred times in every inch of its length. Consequently, at any point one may take, there is but one one-hundredth of an inch from the centre of one turn to the centre of the turn on either side of it. And at its deepest the groove is less than one-thousandth of an inch deep. The phonograph itself cuts the first "master" record, as it is termed, and the problem is to take a number of casts off this model of such delicacy and accuracy that every variation in that exceedingly
fine groove shall be faithfully reproduced. Such a task might well be given up[61] as hopeless, but with the help of electrolysis it is
accomplished easily and cheaply.
To attempt to press anything upon the surface of the "master" would but smooth out the soft wax and obliterate the groove altogether. To apply anything softened by heating would be to melt it. But electrolysis, without tending in any way to distort or damage the delicately cut surface, deposits upon it a surface of metal from which thousands of casts can be made. The gentle fingers of the electricity overlay the soft wax with the hard, strong metal with a minute perfection almost beyond belief.
To commence with, the master record is placed upon a sort of turntable in a vacuum and turned round in the neighbourhood of two strips of gold-leaf strongly electrified. By this means the gold is vaporised and a perfect coating of gold is laid upon the wax. This is far too thin to be of any use, except to render the cylinder a conductor, for the coating is so fragile that it is no stronger than the wax itself. It enables the cylinder, however, to be electro-plated with copper until it is surrounded by a strong metallic shell a sixteenth of an inch thick. It takes about four days to deposit this thickness. The copper shell is then turned smooth in a lathe and fitted tightly into a brass jacket. A little cooling causes the wax record to shrink sufficiently to free it from the copper shell and allow it to be lifted out. A copper mould is thus formed in which any number of additional records can be cast. The molten wax is simply introduced into the inside, and allowed to set; the inside is bored out in a lathe, and then with a little cooling it shrinks and can be withdrawn, a completely finished record, every tiny depression or swelling in the original master being reproduced with an accuracy almost incredible.
Another valuable use to which this process is put is the purification of metals. The electro-chemical action works with unerring precision: it never mistakes an atom of iron for an atom of copper, for example. Passing through a solution of copper salt, the current deposits only copper.
[62]For modern electrical machinery and apparatus copper is required of the utmost possible purity, for every impurity adds to its electrical resistance, in other words, diminishes its value as a conductor. Consequently thousands of tons of "electrolytic" copper, as it is termed, are produced every year. The electrodes used are plates of ordinary copper. A coating of pure metal is deposited
by electrolysis upon the out-electrode from the other one. When the deposit is thick enough the out-electrode is taken out and the deposit torn off it, the union between the two being sufficiently imperfect for this to be done without difficulty. The metal of which the in-electrode is made has already been purified by other processes, until it contains but one per cent. of foreign matter, and by this means even that small percentage is entirely got rid of. The impurities fall to the bottom of the vessel in the form of "slime," which
is periodically removed.
And not only is electrolysis thus unerring in picking out certain atoms from among a mixture, but there is an exact relation between the work done and the quantity of current used. Consequently it forms a very exact method of measuring currents. The method
of measuring current by the strength of the magnetic field which it produces has been mentioned already, and such measurements can be checked by electrolysis. Thus the practical definition of the ampere is "that current which when passed through a solution of silver nitrate in water will deposit silver at the rate of *001118 gramme per second."
The electric accumulator or secondary battery, one of the most useful appliances, is the result of electrolysis reversed. Many large electric-lighting plants have in addition to their generating machinery a large battery of secondary cells, which, being kept charged, are able to help the machinery in times of heavy demand, or even to supply the whole current needed for, say, half-an-hour, so that the whole of the machinery could, in the event of an accident, be shut down for that time and the supply maintained from the bat-
21
teries.[63] This would be sufficient in many cases for fresh machinery to be brought into action or emergency arrangements to be
made.
It may be that this book is being read by someone seated serenely in his arm-chair while engineers and workmen at the generating station are working in frantic haste to set right some sudden breakdown before the batteries are run down. The batteries may have saved the town half-an-hour's darkness.
Large telegraph offices are fitted with secondary batteries. Many motorists owe the ignition which keeps their engines at work to secondary batteries. It is secondary batteries which keep the wireless apparatus at work on a wrecked vessel after the engines have stopped. Indeed secondary batteries are one of the most beneficent inventions. And if only they could be made in a lighter form than is possible at present their value would be infinitely increased.
We have seen how the passage of current through acidulated water produces hydrogen and oxygen. If those gases be collected in closed vessels over the water, so that they remain in contact with the water, as soon as the current is stopped a reverse action sets in. The gases tend to recombine with the electrolyte and in so doing to give back a current equal to that which formed them. Fig.
4 shows the construction of what is called a voltameter, in which the gases arising from the electrodes are collected in little glass vessels placed just above them. Such an apparatus enables us to see easily how the accumulator works. The picture shows the battery which is effecting the separation of the oxygen and hydrogen. If that be disconnected, and the wires joined, as shown by the dotted line, a current will flow back until the oxygen and hydrogen have returned into the solution again. The apparatus will, in fact, work like an ordinary battery, except that instead of a plate or rod of zinc a mass of hydrogen will form the essential part.
An appliance such as a voltameter is not of much use for the practical purpose of storing large quantities of electrical[64] energy, because the surfaces of the electrodes are so small and the surfaces where liquid and gases are in contact are small too. It is clear that the larger the electrodes are the wider will be the passage for the current, just as a wide road can accommodate more traffic than a narrow path. We may regard the electrodes as like gateways through which the current passes. By making them large, therefore, we enable a large current to pass, and consequently permit electrolysis to take place with great comparative rapidity.
Fig. 4
The "plates," as the electrodes in a secondary battery are termed, are generally large metal plates. Experiment has shown that lead is the best for this purpose. It has also been found that it can be improved by making it porous, since the inner surfaces of the pores are so much added surface through which current can pass into the electrolyte. There are various ways of producing this porosity, which need not trouble us here, however. It will suffice for our purpose to understand that an ordinary secondary cell consists of two lead plates, with the largest possible surface, immersed in a liquid, generally a dilute solution of sulphuric acid in water.
To charge the battery, current is sent to one plate, through the liquid to the other plate, and so