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solidity, special magical virtues are attributed to particular stones, or kinds of stone, in accordance with their individual or specific
qualities of shape and colour. For example, the Indians of Peru employed certain stones for the increase of maize, others for the
increase of potatoes, and others again for the increase of cattle. The stones used to make maize grow were fashioned in the likeness
of cobs of maize, and the stones destined to multiply cattle had the shape of sheep.
In some parts of Melanesia a like belief prevails that certain sacred stones are endowed with miraculous powers which correspond in their nature to the shape of the stone. Thus a piece of water-worn coral on the beach often bears a surprising likeness to a breadfruit. Hence in the Banks Islands a man who finds such a coral will lay it at the root of one of his breadfruit trees in the expecta-
tion that it will make the tree bear well. If the result answers his expectation, he will then, for a proper remuneration, take stones
of less-marked character from other men and let them lie near his, in order to imbue them with the magic virtue which resides in it.
Similarly, a stone with little discs upon it is good to bring in money; and if a man found a large stone with a number of small ones
under it, like a sow among her litter, he was sure that to offer money upon it would bring him pigs. In these and similar cases the
Melanesians ascribe the marvellous power, not to the stone itself, but to its indwelling spirit; and sometimes, as we have just seen, a
man endeavours to propitiate the spirit by laying down offerings on the stone. But the conception of spirits that must be propitiated
lies outside the sphere of magic, and within that of religion. Where such a conception is found, as here, in conjunction with purely
magical ideas and practices, the latter may generally be assumed to be the original stock on which the religious conception has been
at some later time engrafted. For there are strong grounds for thinking that, in the evolution of thought, magic has preceded religion.
But to this point we shall return presently.
The ancients set great store on the magical qualities of precious stones; indeed it has been maintained, with great show of reason, that such stones were used as amulets long before they were worn as mere ornaments. Thus the Greeks gave the name of tree-agate to a stone which exhibits tree-like markings, and they thought that if two of these gems were tied to the horns or necks of oxen at the plough, the crop would be sure to be plentiful. Again, they recognised a milkstone which produced an abundant supply of milk in women if only they drank it dissolved in honey-mead. Milkstones are used for the same purpose by Greek women in Crete and
Melos at the present day; in Albania nursing mothers wear the stones in order to ensure an abundant flow of milk. Again, the Greeks believed in a stone which cured snake-bites, and hence was named the snake-stone; to test its efficacy you had only to grind the stone to powder and sprinkle the powder on the wound. The wine-coloured amethyst received its name, which means "not drunken," because it was supposed to keep the wearer of it sober; and two brothers who desired to live at unity were advised to carry magnets about with them, which, by drawing the twain together, would clearly prevent them from falling out.
The ancient books of the Hindoos lay down a rule that after sunset on his marriage night a man should sit silent with his wife till
the stars begin to twinkle in the sky. When the pole-star appears, he should point it out to her, and, addressing the star, say, "Firm art
thou; I see thee, the firm one. Firm be thou with me, O thriving one!" Then, turning to his wife, he should say, "To me Brihaspati
has given thee; obtaining offspring through me, thy husband, live with me a hundred autumns." The intention of the ceremony is
plainly to guard against the fickleness of fortune and the instability of earthly bliss by the steadfast influence of the constant star. It
is the wish expressed in Keats's last sonnet:
Bright star! would I were steadfast as thou art--
Not in lone splendour hung aloft the night.
Dwellers by the sea cannot fail to be impressed by the sight of its ceaseless ebb and flow, and are apt, on the principles of that rude philosophy of sympathy and resemblance which here engages our attention, to trace a subtle relation, a secret harmony, between its tides and the life of man, of animals, and of plants. In the flowing tide they see not merely a symbol, but a cause of exuberance, of prosperity, and of life, while in the ebbing tide they discern a real agent as well as a melancholy emblem of failure, of weakness, and of death. The Breton peasant fancies that clover sown when the tide is coming in will grow well, but that if the plant be sown at
low water or when the tide is going out, it will never reach maturity, and that the cows which feed on it will burst. His wife believes that the best butter is made when the tide has just turned and is beginning to flow, that milk which foams in the churn will go on foaming till the hour of high water is past, and that water drawn from the well or milk extracted from the cow while the tide is rising will boil up in the pot or saucepan and overflow into the fire. According to some of the ancients, the skins of seals, even after they had been parted from their bodies, remained in secret sympathy with the sea, and were observed to ruffle when the tide was on the ebb. Another ancient belief, attributed to Aristotle, was that no creature can die except at ebb tide. The belief, if we can trust Pliny, was confirmed by experience, so far as regards human beings, on the coast of France. Philostratus also assures us that at Cadiz dying people never yielded up the ghost while the water was high. A like fancy still lingers in some parts of Europe. On the Cantabrian coast they think that persons who die of chronic or acute disease expire at the moment when the tide begins to recede. In Portugal,
all along the coast of Wales, and on some parts of the coast of Brittany, a belief is said to prevail that people are born when the tide comes in, and die when it goes out. Dickens attests the existence of the same superstition in England. "People can't die, along the coast," said Mr. Pegotty, "except when the tide's pretty nigh out. They can't be born, unless it's pretty nigh in--not properly born till flood." The belief that most deaths happen at ebb tide is said to be held along the east coast of England from Northumberland to
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Kent. Shakespeare must have been familiar with it, for he makes Falstaff die "even just between twelve and one, e'en at the turning
o' the tide." We meet the belief again on the Pacific coast of North America among the Haidas. Whenever a good Haida is about to
die he sees a canoe manned by some of his dead friends, who come with the tide to bid him welcome to the spirit land. "Come with
us now," they say, "for the tide is about to ebb and we must depart." At Port Stephens, in New South Wales, the natives always buried
their dead at flood tide, never at ebb, lest the retiring water should bear the soul of the departed to some distant country.
To ensure a long life the Chinese have recourse to certain complicated charms, which concentrate in themselves the magical essence
emanating, on homoeopathic principles, from times and seasons, from persons and from things. The vehicles employed to trans-
mit these happy influences are no other than grave-clothes. These are provided by many Chinese in their lifetime, and most people
have them cut out and sewn by an unmarried girl or a very young woman, wisely calculating that, since such a person is likely to
live a great many years to come, a part of her capacity to live long must surely pass into the clothes, and thus stave off for many
years the time when they shall be put to their proper use. Further, the garments are made by preference in a year which has an
intercalary month; for to the Chinese