12. The term connotes ‘single women.'
13. See Eduard von Hartmann, “Die Jungfernfrage,” Die Gegenwart (34) (35) (1891): 113-116; 131-134; Ludwig Langemann, Auf falschem Weg. Beiträge zur Kritik der radikalen Frauenbewegung (Berlin, 1913); Bärbel Kuhn, Familienstand Ledig: Ehelose Frauen und Männer im Bürgertum (1850–1914) (Cologne, 2000), 37-100; Ute Planert, Antifeminismus im Kaiserreich (Göttingen, 1998).
14. Helene Lange and Gertrud Bäumer, eds., Handbuch der Frauenbewegung (Berlin, 1902).
15. Robert Wilbrandt and Lisbeth Wilbrandt, Die Deutsche Frau im Beruf, in Handbuch, vol. 4, eds. Lange and Bäumer, 19-20.
16. Theobald Ziegler, Die geistigen und sozialen Strömungen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1911), 571-572.
17. While single women's studies is expanding (see especially http://www.medusanet.ca/single-women/ [accessed 13 April 2006]), relatively little scholarship has investigated the notion of a population surplus of unwed individuals. One exception, coming from the fields of psychology and sociology, is Marcia Guttentag and Paul F. Secord, Too Many Women? The Sex Ratio Question (Beverly Hills, CA, 1983).
18. Judith M. Bennett and Amy M. Froide, “A Singular Past,” in Singlewomen in the European Past, 1250-1800, eds. Bennett and Froide (Philadelphia, 1999), 4.
19. Ibid., 7-13.
20. Ibid., 14, 15.
21. Martha Vicinus, Independent Women: Work and Community for Single Women, 1850-1920 (Chicago, 1985), 6.
22. Ibid., 7.
23. Elaine Showalter, Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin de Siècle (New York, 1990), 3.
24. Ibid., 19.
25. Rita Kranidis, The Victorian Spinster and Colonial Emigration (New York, 1999), 131.
26. Ibid., 174; emphasis in text.
27. Ibid., 178.
28. Mary Louise Roberts, Civilization without Sexes: Reconstructing Gender in Postwar France, 1917-1927 (Chicago, 1994), 154.
29. Ibid.
30. Mary Louise Roberts, Disruptive Acts: The New Woman in Fin de Siècle France (Chicago, 2002), 247.
31. Ibid., 246.
32. For an overview of historical analysis of national identity, see Nancy Reagin, “Recent Work on German National Identity: Regional? Imperial? Gendered? Imaginary?,” Central European History 37(2) (2004): 273-289.
33. On the evolution of sexual scholarship in central Europe, see Harry Oosterhuis, Stepchildren of Nature: Krafft-Ebing, Psychiatry, and the Making of Sexual Identity (Chicago, 2000); on the influence of social science in imperial Germany, see Erik Grimmer-Solem, The Rise of Historical Economics and Social Reform in Germany, 186^1894 (New York, 2003).
34. On the impact of decreasing birth rates on the women's movement, see Ann Taylor Allen, Feminism and Motherhood in Western Europe 1890-1970 (New York, 2005), 10-11.
35. On the crisis of surplus women in post-World War II Germany, see Elizabeth D. Heineman, What Difference Does a Husband Make? Women and Marital Status in Nazi and Postwar Germany (Berkeley, CA, 1999), 108-136.
36. Roberts, Civilization, 6.
37. Richard Evans, The Feminist Movement in Germany, 1894-1933 (Beverly Hills, CA, 1976).
38. Ute Frevert, Women in German History, trans. Stuart McKinnon-Evans (New York, 1989), 119.
39. Herrad-Ulrike Bussemer, Frauenemanzipation und Bildungsbürgertum (Weinheim, 1985), 23ff.
40. Amy Hackett, “The Politics of Feminism in Wilhelmine Germany, 1890-1918” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1976), 40.
41. Ibid., 66.
42. James Albisetti, Schooling German Girls and Women, Secondary Education in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, 1988), 99.
43. Marion Kaplan, The Making of the Jewish Middle Class. Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany (New York, 1991), 99, 171.
44. Ibid., 171-172.
45. Patricia Mazón, Gender and the Modern Research University: The Admission of Women to German Higher Education, 1865-1914 (Stanford, CA, 2003), 51.
46. Ibid., 51-52.
47. Elisabeth Meyer-Renschhausen, Weibliche Kultur und soziale Arbeit; Eine Geschichte der Frauenbewegung am Beispiel Bremens, 1810-1927 (Cologne, 1989), 77.
48. Ibid.
49. Evans, Feminist Movement, 1.
50. Barbara Greven-Aschoff, Die Bürgerliche Frauenbewegung in Deutschland, 189^1933 (Göttingen, 1981), 46, 47.
51. Ibid., 47.
52. Ibid.
53. Nancy Reagin, A German Women's Movement: Class and Gender in Hanover, 1880-1933 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1995), 101, 277.
54. Ibid., 101.
55. Lora Wildenthal, German Women for Empire, 1884-1945 (Durham, NC, 2001), 6.
56. Ibid., 135; the citation specifically addresses Cauer's activism, but describes Heyl's vision as well; for a description of Heyl's views, see 162-168.
57. Ibid., 6.
58. Ibid., 164.
59. Kuhn, Familienstand, 39.
60. Ibid., 37-38.
61. Joan Wallach Scott's influential essay, “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis,” in Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988), 28-50, made the case that “gender…provides a way to decode meaning and to understand the complex connections among various forms of human interaction” (Ibid., 45^6). Both as a function and a creative factor of gender, marital status is a category that “legitimizes and constructs social relationships” (Ibid., 46).
62. Nancy Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation (Cambridge, MA, 2000), 3; emphasis in text.
63. Heineman, What Difference, xii.
64. Francine du Plessix Gray, Soviet Women (New York, 1989), 7-9, 32-39.
65. Antoinette Burton, “From Child Bride to ‘Hindoo Lady’: Rukhmabai and the Debate on Sexual Respectability in Imperial Britain,” American Historical Review 103 (4) (1998): 1119–1146.
66. Heineman, What Difference, 246.
67. See Evans, Feminist Movement, 35ff.; Ute Gerhard, Unerhört. Die Geschichte der deutsche Frauenbewegung (Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1992), 138-162, 216-279; Greven-Aschoff, 87-107; Hackett, 151-171. On the historiography regarding the division between moderate and radical feminism, see Jean Quataert, “Writing the History of Women and Gender in Imperial Germany,” in Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1870-1930, ed. Geoff Eley (Ann Arbor, MI, 1997), 51-55.
68. See Karen Honeycutt, “Clara Zetkin: A Socialist Approach to the Problem of Women's Oppression,” Feminist Studies 3 (1976): 131-144, and “Socialism and Feminism in Imperial Germany,” Signs 5(1) (1979): 30–41; Alfred Meyer, The Feminism and Socialism of Lily Braun (Bloomington, IN, 1985); Jean Quataert, Reluctant Feminists in German Social Democracy, 1885-1917 (Princeton, 1979).
69. See Ursula Baumann, Protestantismus ud Frauenemanzipation in Deutschland, 1850-1920 (Frankfurt, 1992); Alfred Kall, Katholische Frauenbewegung in Deutschland (Paderborn, 1983).
70.