Among historians there is debate about the appropriate terminology for First Nations people, the official governmental term now used in Canada. I agree with Carl Benn’s approach and apply it in the following text.[4] That means I refer to tribes or nations as they were called in the 1812 period and by names commonly used then (e.g., Seneca); also, I use the names of leaders, often called chiefs, commonly used then (e.g., John Brant). Benn explains that the Six Nations Reserve was normally called the Grand River Tract in1812. I follow his usage of using “native” and “aboriginal” without capitalization, and “Indian” only when the term was used by historical figures or in official agencies. Many terms used in 1812, as well as earlier and later, are now considered politically incorrect or demeaning to the people in question, but their use in a historical context provides accuracy and authenticity and in no sense is intended to offend anyone or any group.
It may be helpful from the outset to have a clear idea of what is meant by the terms “Canada” and “the Canadas.” British North America is a collective term for the seven British colonies in North America: Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Cape Breton, Lower Canada, and Upper Canada. Some contemporaries referred to Canada meaning Lower and Upper Canada, but the term “the Canadas” is more accurate. Lower referred to the lower stretch of the St. Lawrence River, while Upper denoted the upper part and beyond. In effect, Lower Canada was the equivalent of modern day southern Quebec and Upper Canada the equivalent of southern Ontario. The term Canada refers to the confederation (called a Dominion) that was created in 1867 with four provinces to which all the others later adhered. Canadian means the citizens of that nation. In the early nineteenth century, Canadian usually referred to French-speaking residents but could also mean the English-speaking people who were often called English or Upper Canadians. However, for convenience I sometimes refer to Canada (for the Canadas) and to Canadians meaning the residents of either one or both Canadas.
Donald Hickey explains the most usual contemporary designation of warships. For American vessels he uses US followed by the type (e.g., Frigate, Sloop, etc.). For British vessels he uses HM followed by the type. In 1812 the British warships on the Great Lakes were operated by the Provincial Marine, a branch of the army, and so he designates them PM followed by the type. The change to Royal Navy control came in May 1813 when Sir James Yeo arrived to take command and, thus, HM would replace PM.[5]
I follow the practice of many military histories of this period by using figures to designate British infantry regiments or battalions and words for American ones. Thus, the British 49th Regiment and the American Thirteenth Infantry Regiment.
Accoutrements (as in “arms and accoutrements”): A soldier’s pack straps, cartridge box or pouch and straps (belt), haversack, canteen, slings, bayonet belt, and bayonet scabbard.
Adjutant General: His job was to relieve his commanding officer of detailed work. He was the general’s chief administrator, although in the War of 1812 he might be called upon to assume combat responsibilities. Prevost’s adjutant general was Colonel Edward Baynes. See Hitsman, Incredible War of 1812, 32; Sutherland, His Majesty’s Gentlemen, 60.
Battalion (see Company): Was the basic British infantry unit and would be commanded by a lieutenant-colonel. Often, “battalion” and “regiment” were used interchangeably. Three battalions made up a brigade, which would be commanded by a brigadier-general. During the Napoleonic period, the British Army had 104 “regiments of the line,” each having one battalion and some as many as six.
Bateau (batteau): Flat-bottomed boat designed for shallow waters or river rapids. It was powered by oars with sometimes a simple sail.
Canister (U.S.) or Case Shot (British): This was a tin filled with small lead bullets for use against infantry. Usually used at a range of 200–500 yards. It differs from chain shot, which was naval ammunition used against enemy rigging.
Carronade: A gun with a short barrel, which differentiated it from a long gun. The carronade required a smaller gun crew and smaller charges than a long gun but had a shorter range (about 500 yards). A ship could mount more carronades than long guns of the same calibre because they were lighter.
Company (see Battalion): A company was supposed to have up to one hundred men and each battalion was supposed to have ten companies. Eight were known as centre, or battalion, companies. The other two were flank, or elite, companies, the grenadiers on the right and the light company on the left. A captain commanded a company and he would be assisted by subalterns (i.e., lieutenants and ensigns).
Gun (long gun): Fired on a flat trajectory and longer range than carronade, mortar, or howitzer. Calibre denominated by weight of its roundshot (e.g., a 6-pounder fired a 6-pound roundshot). The 6-pounder was the most common artillery piece used by both armies.
Parole: A promise given by a captured soldier that he would not fight again until he had been formally exchanged with a man captured by the other side. The parolee would be allowed to return home but he would usually sign a certificate of parole and his name would be entered on a list. See Gray, Soldiers of the King, 39–41.
NOTES
1. Fryer, Bold, Brave, 13–14. She describes her study of Brock as, “A military history of a military man.”
2. See Harvey, War of Wars, 270, 631, “There are few things the British like so much as a fallen hero….”
3. Harvey, War of Wars, 4.
4. Benn, Iroquois in the War, viii–ix. See also, Bamford and Carroll, Four Years on the Great Lakes, 31–2.
5. Hickey, Don’t Give Up The Ship!, xxvi–xxvii. See also, Malcomson, Lords of the Lake, xix–xx, 343–52.
INTRODUCTION
The World of Isaac Brock
Major-General Sir Isaac Brock, K.B., is a well-known name to many Canadians, but less is known about the world in which he lived, served his king, and died defending Canadians. It was a world very different from what we know today, yet, with many unfortunate similarities. When he was born in 1769 (Napoleon and Wellington were also born that year), the world was dominated by the great powers of Europe — Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Prussia, and Russia. Britain had recently gained overseas territories by conquest from France but was soon to lose some of its most developed colonies and see the creation of a new nation in North America. Nevertheless, Britain’s industrial and financial strengths were growing, its empire continued to expand and it was becoming mistress of the seas.
France recovered from its losses of the Seven Years’ War (1756–63) to help the American rebels win their independence, but its monarchy was inept and out of touch with its people. The result was revolution that produced a bloodbath in France, unstable revolutionary governments, war with neighbouring countries, and, eventually, dictatorship. During those years, Napoleon Bonaparte rose from the rank of a second lieutenant in the artillery to that of a general commanding the army in Italy and, later, in Egypt. He returned from there to help in a seizure of power to become first consul and, finally, in 1804, emperor of the French. The other great powers — Austria and Russia — fearful of revolution fought the French but their generals were no match for Napoleon.
Britain was most concerned that no single power should dominate Europe and that any country controlling Antwerp and the mouth of the Scheldt posed a serious threat to British maritime communications and security.[1] Thus, the British sought allies against Napoleon and undertook campaigns (1799, 1809) to gain control of Antwerp and the mouth of the Scheldt. Brock would have experience in the first of these assaults.
Nelson’s naval victory over the French and Spanish at Trafalgar on October 21, 1805, produced British dominance at sea, but on land Napoleon’s control increased. On the 20th, he defeated the Austrian general Mack at Ulm and in December smashed an Austro-Russian force at Austerlitz. At Jena and Auerstadt (October 1806), he destroyed the Prussian Army and occupied Berlin; Frederick William agreed to a peace treaty on Napoleon’s terms. The next year, at Tilsit, Napoleon forced the Czar of Russia to make peace and recognize his conquests in Europe.[2]
The Royal Navy imposed a tight blockade of the ports of western Europe in order