Deposition of energetic and heavy metals from live-fire training may result in contamination of groundwater by the transport of contaminants from the soil surface. Therefore, an understanding of the hydrogeology of training sites is essential to ensure contamination is avoided, appropriately managed or, if necessary, remediated. Groundwater is rarely directly accessible and therefore observation wells are installed to enable sampling. This chapter summarises the procedure for installing wells for sampling groundwater on military training ranges from choosing a location to laboratory analysis.
The second half of the chapter focusses on the use of risk maps to visually demonstrate areas overlaying aquifers vulnerable to energetic material contamination within a training range. Risk is assessed based on the vulnerability of aquifers, and the hazard of the munitions. Risk maps can be used to improve environmental management of training ranges and to aid land-use decisions, e.g. situating high impact activities away from vulnerable areas.
Chapter 3Hydrologeological characterization of military training ranges and production of maps for land management (Canada)
R Martel, S Brochu
Chapter 4Analysis of explosives in the environment (UK) N Mai, J Pons, D McAteer, P P Gill
There are a number of analytical techniques available for providing detailed qualitative and quantitative information on soil and water contamination. No single technique is suitable for all situations or, indeed, is capable of detecting every type of explosive. This chapter discusses the main techniques used for the analysis of explosives in soils and water with a particular focus in the areas of sample preparation, spectroscopic, spectrometric and chromatographic procedures. A broad introduction is given to these major techniques, their applications and advantages, at a level that does not require the reader to have a detailed technical knowledge.
Section 2
Environmental risk assessment for munitions
Chapter 5
Due to the complexities of environmental fate and transport it is not possible to experimentally determine all potential toxicity impacts for all locations. Life cycle assessment (LCA) can be employed in conjunction with munition emissions data to quantify environmental consequences from military training activities. The aim of LCA is to identify contributing factors to environmental toxicity of emissions in order to reduce their environmental impact. This can be achieved using a combination of emissions data, experimental data and predictive modelling software. This chapter summarises the advantages of LCA when used in conjunction with other management tools to assess the environmental impacts of military training.
Environmental management of military ranges with the support of a life cycle assessment approach (Portugal)
C Ferreira, J M Baranda Ribeiro
Chapter 6
Assessing the toxicity of munitions constituents and their combustion products during use is challenging, as the reaction products are highly dependent on the conditions of use and the climate. Currently, combustion products can be identified to a certain extent by predictive software and by capturing emissions from live detonations. However, both are limited. Predictive models rely on assumptions, and cannot take into account all environmental conditions. On the other hand, there are no standard experimental methods for capturing emissions and results can be compromised by the chosen sampling point location, volume of sampling area, frequency of firing and degradation between capture and analysis. In addition, subsequent determination of the toxicity of these compounds, particularly in mixtures, is limited by the lack of standardised methods, and difficulty in relating cellular or animal test results to humans. This chapter summarises the current state of the art in assessing the hazards posed by munitions related compounds and their combustion products. Also, recommendations are made for improvement of predictive models, the setup for experiments aimed at analysis of emissions, and toxicological evaluations.
Hazard assessment of exposure to ammunition-related constituents and combustion products (Netherlands)
M van Hulst, J P Langenberg, W P C de Klerk
Chapter 7Review of remediation technologies for energetics contamination in the US (USA) H Craig
A review into the use of energetic materials in munitions specifically in manufacturing, load, assemble and pack (LAP), and demilitarisation that have caused contamination with examples is outlined in this chapter. Consideration to toxicity and environmental risk assessment is included and are used to emphasise the requirement for the development and application of soil and groundwater remediation technologies over the past 30 years. The remediation technologies are covered in great detail by the use of clear and representative case studies; it also includes the US EPA perspective.
Section 3
Case studies: military live-fire training range management
Chapter 8
A summary of significant findings from over fifteen years of range characterisation and monitoring focusing on the species and concentration of energetic material deposition. The data are compiled from two Alaskan live-fire training areas and provide case studies of the magnitude of contamination from different range activities such as firing, impact, small arms training and demolition. The studies found that high concentrations of propellant were observed at the propellant burn site, demolition range and some firing points. High explosives were identified at impact areas, particularly around impact craters from low order detonations and demolition ranges. Groundwater and surface impacts were not evident.
Characterization and monitoring of energetic compounds on training ranges: case studies in Alaska, United States (USA)
S A Beal, T A Douglas, G W Larsen, M F Bigl, M E Walsh, M R Walsh
Chapter 9
Due to the ubiquity of lead, antimony and copper in small arms ammunition, contamination of shooting ranges has become a widespread issue. Lead is of particular concern due to quantity, public awareness and the well-known toxicity. Moreover, due to technical advances the detection and quantification of lead in soils and groundwater has become easier. With increasing environmental concentrations, these metals may pose a significant risk to local ecosystems and ultimately human health. Therefore, it is essential to be able to identify and quantify areas with high levels of contamination, and in consequence reduce the environmental risk associated to pollution from shooting practices. This chapter summarises the method for identifying and quantifying contamination on Swiss military shooting ranges in order to determine whether, and to what extent, remediation is required.
Heavy metal contamination on small arms shooting ranges (Switzerland)
R Kaiser, O Hausheer
Chapter 10
The Borris Shooting range in Denmark has been used for a range of military activities from small arms to anti-tank training for at least fifty years. Due to the high usage, and sensitive location – on sandy soil near to a stream commonly used for fishing—the range was characterised (surveyed) for energetic material and heavy metal contamination using multi-increment sampling. Of the six areas sampled, both energetic material and heavy metal
