Wine production in China is believed to go back 5,000 years. From about 1,700 to 900 BCE the guang was used for ceremonial purposes. The guang was a bronze or iron pouring container with a rounded base. Its top and pouring spout were in the shape of an animal. It was used to pour rice wine at banquets and was enclosed in the graves of individuals of high status. Christie’s Auction Catalogue, September 16, 2010
The Mayan civilization disappeared in about 900 CE, probably as a result of overuse of the environment, drought and perpetual conflict with neighbors.59 As one drives through the Yucatan today it is apparent that only a fraction of the settlements that once covered that peninsula is excavated, and that there are countless more cities buried under vine forests yet to be uncovered.
In 1927, archeologists discovered a spear point between two bison ribs near Folsom, New Mexico pointing to the possibility that Pleistocene man had lived in the Americas over 12,000 years ago. A number of human tools – such as axes and spear heads – also were found not long afterwards in nearby Clovis that clearly established the existence of an early settlement of at least the same age.60
Rome began its slow ascent – well before the civilization of the Greeks had peaked – as a village of huts in the eighth century BCE, and eventually ruled an empire that united most of what is now Europe. Many areas that succumbed to Rome’s rule previously had been dominated by local tribal states, while those areas that Rome failed to conquer remained tribal. In northern Britain the Picts fended off Roman domination via fierce warfare.
According to legend, the Etruscans who ruled Rome were ousted by a popular rebellion in 509 BCE.61 The Roman Senate – still before written records – elected two Praetors, who had to agree on any decrees, as joint heads of state for terms of one year. The Senate had 300 members appointed for life, and they themselves voted on their replacements, which created a growing aristocracy and caused the majority of Roman people to withdraw from civic life. The army was composed primarily of the common people (the plebs), which led to the election of Tribunes to represent them, but the Tribunes also became powerful which again created an imbalance of power.62
Rome began the practice of allowing defeated towns to become a part of Roman life and customs – often as citizens or allies – so that its influence began to quickly expand. Citizenship was a privilege that could be earned by individuals from all walks of life, freed slaves included.63 Rome also severely persecuted those who opposed it – including Jews and Christians.
Via a network of excellent roads and settlements populated by their citizens, Rome effectively established a partnership with those in its area of influence by rewarding those who supported it with increased security and a vast trading network. This provided a greater range of goods than would be otherwise possible and was an effective means of creating a loyal following among those willing to cooperate with Roman rule.64 The first known securities market was organized in Rome due to the great wealth that was brought in by its vast trading network. It had the prerequisites for an equity market, including transferable capital, available credit, and people willing to take risk.65
For most of the next century there was a contest for power between the aristocrats and groups representing the bulk of the population. Caesar was immensely popular after he conquered Gaul (now France). He then led his troops to war against the Senate and Pompey, who was then Consul of Rome, which he won in 48 BCE, establishing himself as dictator for life, but soon was assassinated.
After Caesar’s assassination in 45 BCE Rome no longer was a republic, and became an empire under Caesar’s nephew Augustus in 31 BCE. Its territory – expanded to a total of 6.5 million square miles – included lands from North Africa at its southern limits to the Middle East, and north to Britain. This empire was relatively stable until the fourth century when it was beset by economic crisis and attacks from Germanic tribes and the Persian Empire.66
Rome included an opportunity for citizenship for many who were willing to become players in the greatest and most civilized society yet known. Though not a democracy in the sense we use the word today, Rome had many democratic elements that included a greater number of citizens than any civilization to that time. This marks a major advance in democracy’s progess.
The difference in lifestyle and political outlook between the West and East had been noted as early as Hippocrates (c460-c370 BCE), who stated that the Westerners were aggressive and liberty-loving while those from the East were more wise and peace-loving.67
Early Christians spread throughout the ancient world, amidst much persecution, after the conversion of Paul in about 33 CE.68 Paul, who previously persecuted Christians, describes his conversion in the Christian Bible:
For you have heard of my previous life in Judaism, how I persecuted the Church of God violently and tried to destroy it; and I advanced in Judaism beyond many of my own age among my people, so extremely zealous was I for the traditions of my fathers. But He who had set me apart before I was born, and had called me through His grace, was pleased to reveal his Son to me, in order that I might preach Him among the Gentiles.69
Wines were produced by the Etruscans in Central Italy from at least the eighth century BCE. The Romans produced and exported wine to large areas of what is now Europe. Bacchanalian revelry in the early Roman republic resulted in such debauchery that it was outlawed, but not to great effect since the revelers often were the law makers. By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries Italian wine was exported by merchants at considerable profit.
There is almost no region untouched by vineyards in Italy. The quality control system that was introduced in 1963 helped to standardize a market that was often confusing for consumers and sometimes fraudulent. The most famous and sought-after Italian wines are those in Tuscany, which produces Chianti and Brunello di Montalcino from sangiovese grapes, and the Piedmont region which produces long-lived Barolo and Barbaresco from nebbiolo grapes. A more recent addition is the Super Tuscans, made from Bordeaux grapes such as cabernet sauvignon. Wine, Pages 334-35
In 313 CE, the Emperor Constantine, a new convert to Christianity, gave freedom of worship to Christians. He renamed Byzantium as Constantinople – at a meeting point of Europe and Asia – in 330 CE. Christianity became the official religion of the empire in 380 under Theodosius. After his death it was divided into its western and eastern divisions which stand today as the Roman and Eastern Churches.70
Soon Rome, like much of Europe, was invaded numerous times by marauding tribes. The Middle Ages – with its well-known decline – began at this time. But Roman law, administered by judges who aimed at some degree of fairness and equal treatment, generally remained in place, rather than rule only by the local nobles or kings.71 In many ways, Christendom filled in to provide moral guidance throughout Europe as the influence of Rome waned.72
The writings of Saint Augustine (354-430) did much to cement the reputation of Christianity in the West. His Confessions, which tell of his conversion, convinced many that the Kingdom of God was more worthy of devotion than attention to earthly matters.73
Boethius (484-520), a member of the Roman aristocracy, continued to copy the works of Aristotle and other Greeks, ensuring their survival. The distillation of known information,