In the early 1600s the Stuarts pushed the rule of law in England back precipitously. The country became more authoritarian and corrupt as these monarchs insisted on the divine right of kings. The purchase of offices – which was common on the continent – threatened to overthrow the democratic direction of the country. Charles I used the court system to go after his own enemies. He tried to impose English religious liturgy on Scotland in 1637 which led to war.174 He dissolved Parliament in 1629 in a dispute over religious issues and the raising of taxes. This led to a decade-long civil war that resulted in Charles’ beheading. Abuses of power under the “Protectorate” of Oliver Cromwell that followed led to the Restoration under Charles II in 1660. But his pro-Catholic sympathies – in a land that was primarily Protestant – resulted in the Glorious Revolution and the installment of William of Orange as king in 1689.175
An equitable system for taxes was established under the Glorious Revolution. Although taxes increased, they were seen by the English public as being required to fund two expensive wars with France and Spain. But the increase in taxes did not stifle the English economy, instead war may have contributed to an expansion. Wars required taxation and organization and therefore tended to make the state stronger. By the nineteenth century a few of England’s neighbors in Northern Europe also created similar tax systems that stimulated their economies.176 Thus taxes, even in those times, became a way to enable the government to make purchases that create employment and benefit all levels of society.
One possible reason for the relative stability of England was that, in comparison with its neighbors, it was somewhat isolated. Although it was vulnerable to attacks from the Continent and Scandinavian tribes through much of its history, the fact that it is an island encouraged the English to think of themselves as a unified whole earlier than the rest of Europe.
The essays of Michel de Montaigne had a humanizing influence on science and education in France.177 In his “Essay on the Education of Children” he proposed that learning the skills most needed in life should precede training in specific disciplines: “After having taught him what will make him more wise and good, you may then entertain him with the elements of logic, physics, geometry, rhetoric, and the science which he shall then himself most incline to, his judgment being beforehand formed and fit to choose, he will quickly make his own.” Rene Descartes brought about a revolution in thought by emphasizing the responsibility of the individual in determining her or his views, rather than depending on the Church to define one’s role. His famous statement: “I think, therefore I am,” first appeared in 1637 in his Discourse on Method.178
In 1513, Niccolo Machiavelli published The Prince. Despite Machiavelli’s reputation as a backer of tyranny, his advice often was positive. For example, his recommendations include: “A prince should also demonstrate that he supports talent by supporting men of ability and by honoring those who excel in each craft.”179
In the early 1500s Spain, under Charles V, had the largest empire in the world. Despite a considerable influx of gold from the New World, expenses greatly outstripped income due to wars with countries throughout Europe. Charles forced tax increases through the Cortes, the Spanish Parliament. An uprising ensued which further weakened the government.180 Under Philip II, who became King in 1556, and his successors, Spain’s dominance faded during the remainder of the century, punctuated by the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 by England, which ruled the seas and trade routes thereafter. His persecution of minority regions and religions and his backing of the Inquisition caused rebellion and general discontent.181
Spain expanded its influence into the New World with Cortes destroying the Aztec empire in Mexico in 1521 and Pizarro devastating the Incas in Peru in 1533. In Bolivia and Mexico, Spanish rulers lived off the extracts from the mines which were worked by indigenous tribes that essentially were slaves.182 Upon the death from smallpox of thousands of natives who were expected to be used as forced laborers, the colonial economy collapsed and the Spaniards began importing slaves from Africa.183 After the settlement of Mexico, Spain continued exploring and settling northward into what is now California, Arizona, and Colorado. The Portuguese overcame the Dutch to settle Brazil. Russia established settlements in Alaska and as far south as Fort Ross in California184
Mexico was the first country in Latin America to produce wine after Cortes sent for grape cuttings from Spain in 1522. The biggest Latin American producer now is Argentina, followed by Chile and Brazil. Wine also is produced in Uruguay, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.
Argentina’s Mendoza region may be the most famous wine producing area in South America. It also is a popular tourist destination, with the snow-capped mountain chain of the Andes in the background. It is known for its Malbec wine, well-priced and popular throughout the world and its Cabernet Sauvignon, both of which have their origins in Southwest France. Argentine wines are generally attractive and usually ready to drink when relatively young. Wine, Pages 840-42.
When Peter, who became known as “the Great,” assumed the Russian throne in 1672, he moved the capitol to Saint Petersburg and imposed modern innovations. He also drafted the entire aristocracy into lifelong service in the army. In exchange for military service, the nobles were exempted from taxes and given land grants. Peter also was known for his enthusiastic torture of his enemies.185 Many Russian nobles owned large numbers of serfs, thousands in some cases. Peter’s autocratic methods, however, made it impossible for Russia to operate effectively after his death due to a lack of trained administrators who could make independent decisions.186
Catherine, also known as “the Great,” assumed the Russian throne in 1762. A friend and correspondent of Voltaire, she expanded Peter’s building program but brought further suppression on the serfs, particularly after the French Revolution of 1789.187 She continued the Russian expansion in the direction of Sweden-Finland and Poland-Lithuania.188 Her grandson, Alexander I, flirted with the idea of a constitutional monarchy and led Russia in its successful repulsion of Napoleon in 1812, which left 600,000 men to die in the snow after the unsuccessful siege of Moscow.189 Tsar Alexander II freed the serfs, but was assassinated in 1881, which drove the Russian monarchy to establish yet greater repressions.190
The first settlements in North America were in Montreal under Jacques Cartier of France in 1536, and Saint Augustine by Pedro Menendez of Spain in 1565, following the destruction of a colony of Huguenots. Menendez’s settlement was destroyed in turn by a larger group of Huguenots a few years later. Thus the enmities of the Continent were transferred to the New World from the beginning.191
The trade routes to the Americas expanded exponentially in a little over 100 years. By 1600, 200 ships per year sailed between Spain and New Amsterdam, which became New York in 1664. Many products from the New World quickly became popular such as pepper, coffee, cocoa, sugar and tobacco. This trade had a profound impact on the wealth and health of Western Europe.192 The English became dominant in the New World after they settled Jamestown in Virginia in 1607, followed by settlements in Maryland, the Carolinas, New York and New Jersey.193
The Pilgrims, a group of about 100 Protestants, sailed for what is now Massachusetts in 1620. They claimed to follow the teachings of John Winthrop, who spoke of a “city upon a hill” with equality for all under a God who loves his creation. However, the actual model that they perpetrated was the opposite of democracy: strict rules and punishments were imposed by those who claimed to represent Christian love.194 They imposed the same religious intolerance they had left Europe to escape.
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