War in Britain: English Heritage. Tim Newark

Robin Hood and the growing reputation of the archer symbolised individual liberty in medieval Britain, the hard work of limiting royal centralised power was actually achieved during a series of civil wars fought between nobles and the king. None of these was fought for the ideal of political freedom, far from it, they were largely struggles for personal power, but some of the by-products of these conflicts, such as the Magna Carta, added substantially to the rule of law and to checks on the power of the state.

      Simon de Montfort was a prime mover in the civil wars of the mid-13th century. Born in France, he was earl of Leicester and a leader of the English barons who protested against the rule of King Henry III. In 1258, these noblemen forced Henry to agree to a plan of reform called the ‘Provisions of Oxford’, which restricted royal power by placing government administration in the hands of 24 barons. A few years later, g Henry broke the agreement and compelled the barons, led by Simon de Montfort, to take up arms to assert their authority. It was a reckless act on the part of the king, for Simon de Montfort was a formidable warlord. His father had led the Albigensian Crusade which crushed the Cathars in southern France with exceptional brutality; now Simon embraced this Barons’ War as a crusade also telling his soldiers to wear white crosses on their tunics as the king ‘had broken so many oaths that he had become the enemy of God.’

      KNIGHTS IN ARMOUR

      The age of Edward I saw a transformation in the armour worn by knights and their retainers. The beginning of the 13th century saw the final evolution of the mail shirt. Called a hauberk, it was a long, close-fitting tunic of mail down to the knees with sleeves of mail that included mail mittens as well as separate pieces of mail worn over the legs and feet. A mail hood finished off the complete armour with perhaps a conical helmet with a nasal worn over it, in earlier Norman style, or a completely closed helmet called a helm. A cloth surcoat was worn over the mail and this served as a means of identification being coloured in the heraldry of the family to which the soldier belonged.

      By the middle of the 13th century, armourers were experimenting with new forms of armour, namely pieces of steel plate. Rectangular plates called ailettes were attached to the shoulders and protected against downward sword blows. Knees were protected by plates called poleyns. Visors were added to helms so that the knight could open his helmet when not in combat. These developments established a trend that grew in the 14th century. Larger pieces of plate armour were attached to arms and legs over mail. Armoured gauntlets took over from mail mittens. The surcoat was shortened and became known as a gipon. Smaller helmets following the shape of the head came into fashion, either worn by themselves or under the great helm. These were called basinets and had visors added to them later in the 14th century.

       Early 12th century knight, typical of the Norman-style warriors that now ruled Britain. He wears a long mail shirt with mail mittens and carries a mace. [Regia Anglorum]

      It is an old view that knights in armour were ponderous fighters who, if unhorsed, would be useless on the ground and, if knocked over, would flail around like turtles on their backs. Re-enactors have shown that warriors in armour in fact faced no particular problems of weight as both mail and plate armour were designed to distribute the weight over the body. Warriors thus equipped can run and jump and fight with great speed and agility. Problems arise mainly from heat exhaustion, when fighting on a warm day can create excessive heat and sweat under the armour.

      John Cole of medieval re-enactment group Conquest describes the experience of fighting in armour:

      ‘Beneath our mail we wear a thick quilted aketon which helps to cushion blows against our armour, but on a warm day it becomes stiflingly hot and we just use a half-strength one. These quilted coats filled with padding could absorb several arrows and warriors must have considered it worth the discomfort.’

      The tight fitting mail also prevented completely flexible movements.

      ‘In close combat, mail enclosing the entire arm with mittens as well as mail leggings is highly effective against sword cuts and the sacrifice in movement would have been worth it. In pauses between combat, you can see many of our re-enactor members jumping up and down to loosen the mail which can bunch, or hitching it up so the belt supports its weight on the hips as well as the shoulders. This must have happened in real combat.’

       Close-up of mail leggings worn beneath the long mail shirt by 12th century knights. As the century progressed, mail armour was increased to cover every aspect of the body, including hands, feet, and face. [Regia Anglorum]

       Members of Conquest re-enactment group recreate an encampment. [John Cole/Conquest]

      The two armies met at Lewes in Sussex in 1264. King Henry commanded the central body of his supporters, while his brother commanded the left flank and his son, Prince Edward, the right flank. Simon de Montfort led an army he had divided into five groups, with one held in reserve. On the morning of the battle, he seized the heights above the town of Lewes, provoking King Henry to attack without any plan, just unleashing his mounted knights led by Prince Edward. Many of de Montfort’s supporters were not professional soldiers and his body of Londoners fled before the royal assault. The mounted warriors pursued the fleeing footsoldiers for four miles, giving no quarter, slashing downwards with their great swords, until heaps of bodies littered the battlefield, but Prince Edward’s charge had weakened the royal army and de Montfort took prompt action to exploit this. With a furious attack downhill he pushed the main royalist army back into the city of Lewes and when Prince Edward returned from his pursuit, it was only to join his father as a prisoner.

      Simon de Montfort was declared Head of State and in 1265 he established a parliament in which representatives from all the boroughs and cities served alongside the barons and clergy, thus including the Commons for the first time in English government. However, de Montfort’s triumph was short-lived, breaking down in acrimony, and Prince Edward eventually led the royalists to victory at the battle of Evesham. King Henry was restored to the throne, his power restricted, and the court was dominated by Prince Edward who became King Edward I in 1272.