The Old Kingdom encompassed the period from the 1st to the 6th Dynasty when all the great pyramids were built in Giza and in Saqqara this period lasted from 3000 to 2250 BC when it came abruptly to an end, owing to a civil war breaking out, and the whole empire collapsed. To the Ancient Egyptians the afterlife was just as important as the earthly life, hence the reason they surrounded themselves with many murals and pictures on the walls of their many tombs; these portray agricultural scenes and abundant harvests as well as hunting, fishing and dancing scenes and many games. All of these were of an afterlife modelled on a visionary earthly life. Ankhmahor was an able master-builder and was considered an expert because he controlled the work of the many sculptors at the tomb. This project disclosed his keen interest in medicine as he displayed recurrent images of medical themes and surgical operations taking place on the walls. His interest in pathology was attributed to his admiration of another architect named Imhotep, who was made an object of worship and was later known as Imuthes, God of Medicine. (Imhotep built the first step pyramid for King Zoser the Pharaoh of the 3rd Dynasty in 2686 BC when Zoser was the King of Upper and Lower Egypt.)
Figure 1.1 Illustration of patients having hands and toes treated (lower picture) and a patient having hand treatment (top picture), from the tomb of Ankhmahor.
In the Masataba of ‘Ankhmahor’ on the west door entrance are two registers representing the treatment of hands and feet. These are referred to as a manicure and pedicure by Alexander Badawy in his book The Tomb of Ankhmahor at Saqqara in which he gives a very fine detailed translation of the wall scenes. In one scene on the wall the right hand of one person is being treated and the other person is having a toe on the left foot treated. The text reads: (patient) ‘Make these give strength.’ The operator responds, ‘I will do to thy pleasure sovereign!’ (This answer is between the two operators, so it could be valid for both.) The patient who is having his toe treated is begging, ‘Do not cause pain to these.’ There also appears to be a probe in the operator’s hand (see figure 1.1) (although this is not shown in the many reproduced copies that are included in many reflexology books). An upper fragment on the same wall shows a patient having both hands treated; however, the inscription was badly defaced (see figure 1.1).
Figure 1.2 Patients having massage or manipulation of the foot or leg and shoulder, from the tomb of Ankhmahor.
Another relief shows massage or manipulation to the foot or leg and shoulder (figure 1.2), which could indicate some form of pressure therapy. As massage was often mentioned in many of the texts and old medical papyri it is quite reasonable to believe that this could be a form of reflexology treatment taking place on the hands and feet with massage or manipulation to the legs and back.
Ankhmahor himself is represented on two door-jambs in identical striding attitude. The inscriptions indicate the many titles he held; these include ‘Hereditary Prince’, ‘Count’, ‘Chief Justice’, ‘Vizier’ and ‘Court Physician’.
Ancient Chinese writings described a pressure therapy using the fingers and thumbs. Acupressure is an old Oriental therapy, ‘acu’ meaning ‘needle point’; however, finger pressure was used long before needles. There are different types of acupressure, from the very gentle to deep digital and thumb pressure. There were many early books written on massage or ‘examining foot method’ as it was then called. In reflexology, the varying pressures are used according to each individual’s requirements and the diagnostic techniques are very similar to those used in Chinese acupressure.
In the Sung Dynasty (AD 960–1280) a paper that first appeared in Essentials of Preserving Life showed some exercise routines, which, when repeated, were supposed to be excellent for health. One of these routines was to stretch the hands forward and clench firmly the balls of the extended feet and lower the head as if paying homage; this was repeated 12 times, after which you then returned to the crossed leg position and placed your clenched hands back into your lap. Many ancient diagrams survived of these early ‘Dao Yin’ exercises that were the earliest forms of Chi Kung (Qigong); these were traditionally considered representations from the Chinese ancients of longevity each of whom had their own special method of healing diseases. One in particular is an acupressure cure for lumbago or any low back pain; it shows the person facing the wall, pressing the palm of the right hand against the wall, letting the left hand drop naturally; the right foot is also placed against the wall, and the person then proceeds to exhale very slowly 18 times. This is then repeated with the left hand and foot. This exercise is claimed to heal strain of the lumbar muscles, and relieve lower back pain and lumbago. These actions indicate how important the hands and feet are considered to be in maintaining good health in TCM.
Acupuncture itself developed throughout the early Shang Dynasty in the 16th to 11th centuries BC. It became a method of treating disease and pain by the insertion of many different types and sizes of needles into specific areas of the body. These areas, or acupuncture points (acupoints), were thought to lie on lines or channels known as meridians (see chapter 2 for a full description). Acupressure and acupuncture were, however, only a small part of the treatment of TCM. The system also included a vast herbal tradition and dietary practices.
Buddhism was a religion of East and Central Asia that grew from the teachings of Gautama Buddha. His philosophy was that pureness of spirit was the answer to all suffering. Buddhism spread to China around the time of the Han Dynasty (about 206 BC). There is evidence from this period that in ancient times the feet symbolized many things. A Buddha’s footprints carved in the rock at Kusinara, China, shows signs on the second, third, fourth and fifth toes depicting the Sun, in ancient times possibly symbolizing the Qi energy within the toes (see figure 1.3).
Yin, Yang and Qi
The terms ‘Yin’ and ‘Yang’ are widely used in Traditional Chinese Medicine. They describe, for instance, the quality of the Qi (Chi) energy, which flows through channels called meridians. Illness is caused by an imbalance of Yin and Yang in the body. The idea of Yin and Yang polarities appears continually throughout Chinese thought. Yin is conceived as the soft, inactive female principle or polarity in the body and in the universe generally, while Yang is the active, male principle or polarity. Although opposites, they are also interrelated, and to keep healthy these two opposing but complementary energies must always be balanced.
One energy ascends in the body; the other descends. TCM theory states that if the blood and the energy are not in equilibrium, there is disharmony between the Yin and Yang qualities, and illness will soon follow. A blockage or malfunction is considered to indicate a deficiency or excess of energy of one or the other within the body, manifesting as a functional disturbance, or an imbalance in the way in which an organ or body system functions; from this, physical ill-health can develop. A saying that describes this idea is ‘If there is a kink in the life force disease will manifest’. In disease these terms also refer to Yang being all acute problems, in which the patient feels hot and may have a temperature, and is restless. Yin indicates a more chronic problem, in which the patient is weak and often cold and has no wish to move about.
Figure 1.3