The Medieval Anarchy: History in an Hour. Kaye Jones

kingship in England, she was now actively asserting her rights in Normandy. Possibly the news of Stephen’s usurpation was enough to motivate such action. She began by occupying the castles of Exemes, Domfront, and Argentan, of which the latter served as a more permanent base and provided the setting for the birth of her third son, William, on 22 July 1136. In October she travelled to Le Sap where her husband, Geoffrey, was busy laying siege to the town’s castle. Though his attack was unsuccessful, he was undeterred and continued his assault on Normandy for the next three years. Back in England, Stephen could hardly ignore the developing chaos in his Duchy and he crossed the Channel in March 1137. He hoped to reoccupy Argentan but instead agreed a truce with Geoffrey: the King would pay him 2,000 marks a year in return for peace along the Normandy–Anjou border. Geoffrey agreed and Stephen returned to England in December.

      During Stephen’s absence from England, however, King David had launched a second invasion in a bid to extend his territories. Shortly after Easter in 1137, he marched on Northumberland with his army and began pillaging the area. Fortunately Stephen’s earls and barons were able to repel the Scots and force David to accept a six-month truce. But after six months, the truce had expired and Stephen was forced to return from Normandy to face King David who was once again knocking on England’s door.

      

      Battle of the Standard

      [King David] hastened with his whole force to devastate Northumberland. And then that execrable army, more atrocious than the whole race of pagans, neither fearing God nor regarding man, spread desolation over the whole province, and murdered everywhere persons of both sexes, of every age and rank, and devastated towns, churches and houses.

      Richard of Hexham

      Like his previous campaigns, David’s third invasion of England in 1138 was not just an attempt to extend his sovereignty, it was also an opportunity to promote and assert Matilda’s claim to the throne. However, the brutality of the Scottish army only served to harden attitudes against King David and strengthen the local population’s loyalty to Stephen. David experienced an early success at the Battle of Clitheroe on 10 June 1138 where a section of his army, commanded by William Fitz Duncan, defeated the English in the northern county of Lancashire.

      With the Scots now wreaking havoc across the north, the English had no choice but to attack. On 22 August 1138 the two armies met at Cowton Moor, near Northallerton, in Yorkshire. The ensuing conflict is known as the Battle of the Standard, a name that derives from the religious banners carried into battle by the English. In an assault that lasted less than a few hours, the Scots had either fled the battlefield or been destroyed by showers of English arrows and deadly hand-to-hand combat. When he heard news of the great victory, King Stephen was said to be overjoyed.

      The battle may have been won but Stephen needed to prevent a repeat performance. In particular, he needed a settlement that would placate David’s territorial ambitions. Under the terms of this peace agreement, known as the Second Treaty of Durham, Henry, David’s son, was granted the earldom of Northumberland. A marriage to Ada, daughter of the Earl of Surrey, was also arranged and the pair wed the following year. While these generous concessions ended one war, there was another one brewing back in England.

The Rise of Matilda

      A major turning point in King Stephen’s reign was marked by the defection of Robert, Earl of Gloucester, to Matilda’s side in May 1138. From this point on the country descended rapidly into anarchy, chaos, and civil war. Whether he was stirred by familial affection for his half-sister or suffered an attack of conscience after breaking his many oaths, we will never know. More important than the reasons, however, are the consequences of this act.

      The conflict began with a series of major rebellions that broke out in southwest England, possibly inspired by Robert’s defection. Stephen acted swiftly to crush the revolts and laid successful sieges at Hereford, Shrewsbury, Castle Cary, and Harptree but was unable to take Robert’s stronghold of Bristol. The Welsh Marches, including Dudley and Ludlow, along with Dover, another of Robert’s castles, also revolted against Stephen but were quickly brought back under royal control.

      Though these rebellions were relatively small, they demonstrate the extent of Robert’s influence. As the chronicle, Gesta Stephani, states:

      

      [the rebels] were bound to the earl [Robert] by ties of friendship, firmly united with him by pledge and oath, and so much his allies by compact and homage that as soon as they learned he wished to rebel against the king’s power, they joined in his rebellion promptly and by agreement.

      The defection of one man had brought Matilda the strength and might of the southwest of England.

      

      Second Lateran Council

      In early 1139, Matilda launched her first direct attack on Stephen by writing to the Papal court in Rome. As the highest authority in Medieval Europe, Matilda knew that securing this support for her claim was crucial to becoming queen of England. The Papal court agreed to hear the case and discussions opened on 4 April 1139 at a meeting known as the Second Lateran Council. Neither Matilda nor Stephen attended in person but each sent representatives to appear on their behalf.

      Pope Innocent II, convened the Second Lateran Council

      The Pope, with whom all decisions lay, neither adjourned nor passed judgement on the case. This created a situation whereby Stephen continued to rule and Matilda was left anxious and frustrated. In fact the Pope never made a formal decision on the English succession. Perhaps he hoped that Stephen and Matilda might come to some agreement on their own. The Pope’s indecision only strengthened Matilda’s resolve to reclaim her inheritance by force, and with the support of Robert, the decision was made to take the fight directly to Stephen in England.