But it was not only peasants who suffered. Royal princes too were sometimes used as pawns. At the conclusion of a peace treaty between two states, it was customary to exchange hostages as a guarantee of good faith. These hostages were usually princes of royal birth.
In 265 BC, a merchant named Lü Buwei travelled to Handan, the capital city of Zhao, in search of fresh business opportunities. Of the seven states that remained, Zhao was the most cultured and sophisticated, Chu had the largest land area and Qin the greatest military power.
There were two main reasons for Qin’s military might. First and foremost was the hardiness of its people. Living in the far west corner of ancient China, the people of Qin had been responsible for centuries for the defence of their western frontier against the fierce nomadic Xiongnu or Huns who roamed the adjacent desert wastelands. In time, they adopted many of the savage fighting methods of their enemy and developed military practices more ruthless than that of any other state. Their children were taught to ride from a young age, given bows and arrows and shown how to shoot birds and animals from the saddle. When a war was declared, every citizen was conscripted. The Qin army seldom used chariots but would swoop down upon their enemies on fast horses, moving like a swarm of locusts across the plains and destroying all in their path with their spears, halberds, dagger axes, crossbows and arrows. Flight or surrender was considered cowardly and desertion was punishable by death. Qin soldiers were promoted according to the number of heads of enemy troops they brought back to their officers. All military personnel were expected to fight to the death.
According to Shiji, there was a second reason for Qin’s strength. Sima Qian wrote:
The country of Qin was so situated that its geographical position almost guaranteed its military might. Access was irksome because the state was surrounded by a girdle consisting of the Yellow River and the mountains. Suspended 1000 feet above the neighbouring states, its lofty location was so advantageous that a million attackers could be held off with fewer than 20,000 men. When a Qin general sent his troops to descend on the enemy, it was like a giant emptying a pail of water from the pinnacle of a tall building.
Merchant Lü Buwei was born in the state of Wei but lived and prospered in the state of Haan for a few years before moving to Zhao. Like many traders, he travelled frequently from state to state, buying cheap and selling dear. By the year 265 BC he had already made a fortune and was known to be a very wealthy man.
At that time Qin was governed by King Zao, whose reign was to last for fifty-five years. Between 275 and 270 BC, Qin defeated the armies of both Wei and Chu so convincingly that both states were forced to deed over large tracts of land during the peace negotiations. Flushed with victory, King Zao turned his attention north and attacked Zhao in 270 BC. This time, the Qin troops were defeated by the well-disciplined Zhao army. Qin sued for peace and the two states exchanged royal princes to act as hostages.
Instead of sending his oldest son, the crown prince, as a hostage, King Zao dispatched one of his grandsons, Prince Zi Chu, the son of his second son, Prince An Guo. Like many princes of royal blood, Prince An Guo had a favourite wife and many concubines. His favourite wife was barren but he had more than twenty sons by his other wives. When Prince An Guo was commanded by his father to send one of his sons to the state of Zhao, it was easy for him to dispatch Prince Zi Chu because Zi Chu’s mother was one of his least favourite concubines.
Life as a hostage in an alien state was a precarious affair much dreaded by the royal princes. Should hostilities resume between the two states, the hostage prince would be an easy and convenient target on which the populace could vent its anger. There was even the likelihood of being murdered or executed.
After his arrival in Zhao, Prince Zi Chu was neglected by his royal family back home. He was a middle son, his mother was only a minor concubine, and his father Prince An Guo was not even the Crown Prince. He was provided with a very modest residence in the guest house district of Handan, capital city of Zhao. The other aristocrats in the city held him in contempt, noting that he lived shabbily under straitened circumstances, without even a decent carriage.
As time went by, the relationship between the two states of Qin and Zhao gradually worsened. There were frequent skirmishes and aggressive posturing on both sides. After each dispute, Zi Chu’s privileges would be further curtailed. He had no choice but to endure in silence the mounting insults, deplorable living conditions, diminished rations, reduced allowance and other forms of abuse. Ignored by his own family and ostracised by the people of Zhao, Prince Zi Chu was destitute when Merchant Lü Buwei came into his life.
After migrating from the state of Haan to Zhao, Merchant Lü prospered even further. Now immensely wealthy, he decided to settle down in Handan, which at that time enjoyed the reputation of being the most cultured and sophisticated capital city of the seven states. ‘Handan’s women are beautiful, its music superb, and youths everywhere try to simulate the elegance of the natives. They imitate even the way people walk in Handan.’*
By sheer chance, Merchant Lü overheard that Prince Zi Chu was being held hostage in the same city and was living in difficult circumstances. More importantly, he learned that Zi Chu’s father, Prince An Guo, had recently been proclaimed Crown Prince of Qin following the death of his older brother the year before (266 BC). It dawned on the merchant that Prince Zi Chu now stood a chance of becoming heir to the throne of the most powerful state under Heaven.
Merchant Lü asked his own father, ‘What is the rate of return if one invests in farming?’
‘The return can be as high as ten times your investment.’
‘How about the buying and selling of jewellery and pearls?’
‘Much more profitable. A hundred times your capital.’
‘How about helping to place a king on the throne?’
‘Oh!’ his father exclaimed. ‘That can lead to the sort of wealth that is incalculable.’
Merchant Lü laughed. ‘In that case, Prince Zi Chu should be regarded as qi huo ke ju (a precious treasure worth cherishing)! If we invest in him, we might reap enormous riches one day. Father, you have made up my mind for me.’
After this conversation, Merchant Lü set about making a business plan. First he paid a visit to Prince Zi Chu and was shocked at his modest surroundings and poverty-stricken appearance. Moved to pity, he said to the prince, ‘I know how to open the gate of your house wider for you.’
Prince Zi Chu laughed and said, ‘Why don’t you open your own gate wider before worrying about mine?’
Lü replied, ‘You don’t understand. The width of my opening depends on the width of yours.’
Xin zhi suo wei (grasping the essence of what he was alluding to), the prince led the merchant to a mat in an inner room. They sat opposite each other and were soon deep in conversation.
Lü said, ‘Your grandfather, King Zao, is getting on in years. Although your father Prince An Guo is now Crown Prince and next in line to the throne, he has not yet designated his own successor. Your chances of being your father’s heir are not great because not only are you a middle son, you also have more than twenty brothers. What do you say if the two of us put our heads together and come up with a plan to seat you on the throne one day?’
Prince Zi Chu could hardly believe his ears. ‘My mother and I have never been favoured by my father. Besides, I have been a hostage and away from home for a long time. At present, I have no chance of competing with my brothers who are there in person, waiting upon my father day and night. If you can accomplish this miracle, I will make you my guardian and share everything with you. In addition, I’ll remain grateful to you for the rest of my life. But the real question is, how do we achieve this?’
‘I have made some enquiries and thought it out very carefully,’ the wily merchant replied. ‘You are poor and living in a foreign state. You have no money to buy gifts