Armed with this moral justification, communist governments across the world routinely engaged in the most egregious human rights abuses throughout the twentieth century. This dogmatic ideological commitment to the collective allowed the most basic individual liberties to be easily brushed aside. It is estimated that the Soviet regime killed almost sixty-two million over a seventy-year period in the name of the socialist revolution, twenty million of whom died under Stalin. Some were executed, some died during famines precipitated by coercive Soviet economic policy and others perished in the gulag or working on slave-labour construction projects. Communist China’s Great Leap Forward, between 1958 and 1962, created mass famine that killed between twenty and thirty million. Yet neither Stalin nor Mao could match the Khmer Rouge for pure ferocity. The Khmer Rouge slaughtered two million out of eight million Cambodians – a quarter of the entire population – in an effort to purify Cambodia of all bourgeois influences and drag the country towards the mirage of communist utopia.
Subsequent communist governments recognized the atrocities of earlier regimes, perpetrated in the name of socialist revolution. Deng Xiaoping declared that Mao had only been 70 per cent right and Khrushchev criticized Stalin’s reign of terror. But such abuse of power was explained as a misapplication of socialism. Ironically, Khrushchev blamed the individualism of the Stalinist cult – rather than the totalitarian state – for ‘mass repressions and brutal acts of violation of Socialist legality’. Stalin’s excesses did not give grounds for an ideological shift – Marxism and liberty remained incompatible and irreconcilable – leaving intact the ideological weapon with which to attack personal freedoms.
During the Cold War, communist governments also relied on the Marxist conception of freedom to avoid signing up to human rights treaties. Two international human rights lawyers summarized the relationship between socialism and human rights: ‘Since the State by definition represents the interests of the people, the citizens can have no rights against the State…The socialist State expresses the will of the mass of the workers, and the individual owes it absolute obedience.’
Throughout this period the Soviet Union and other communist governments relied on their very different conception of freedom, and their cynical view of individual liberty, to avoid assuming any international human rights obligations under the guise that they would ‘interfere with domestic affairs’ and ‘sovereignty’.
However, the spread of socialist ideas beyond the Soviet bloc generated a number of treaties providing for social and economic rights, a more subtle reflection of the Marxist critique that civil and political liberties did not address people’s real needs. The International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights 1966 included rights to work, a fair wage, healthcare, education, the right to take part in cultural life and the right to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress. In reality, the Covenant reflected aspirations not rights. These new rights could not be judicially enforced in domestic courts in the way that, for example, illegal detention can be challenged or the right to protest asserted in specific cases.
This attempted compromise, coupling civil and political liberties with other ‘rights’, was reflected in the approach of continental European governments, which had historically, philosophically and culturally been much more susceptible to socialist influence. The development of social democratic movements on the continent can be seen as an attempt to forge a compromise between the two conceptions of freedom that otherwise stand in clear and unequivocal conflict with each other. The influence of this attempted synthesis – between Marxism and liberalism – has extended beyond domestic politics, to the development of a common European identity through the supranational institutions of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg and the EU in Brussels.
In Britain these twin strands of socialism lay beneath the surface of the New Labour project that swept Tony Blair into power in 1997. Both ran against the traditional grain of British liberty. Marx had a less powerful, but nonetheless enduring, influence in Britain. New Labour had successfully concealed, rather than extinguished, the orthodox brand of socialism, and Tony Blair managed formally to dislocate the Labour Party from the dogma of public ownership of the means of production during his famous ‘Clause Four’ moment in 1994. Nevertheless, the Labour Party’s updated constitution still stubbornly described it as a ‘socialist’ party.
Looking around the table at Tony Blair’s new Cabinet of Ministers in May 1997 and more broadly across the corridors of power in Whitehall, a surprising number of ministers and key advisers, including John Reid and Peter Mandelson, were formerly Communist Party members, allies or associates – including two Home Secretaries, until recently the cabinet minister responsible for the Human Rights Act. Other cabinet ministers with previous communist or Trotskyite connections include Charles Clarke, Stephen Byers and Alan Milburn. Marxism had been a key influence on them during their formative years, and once in power they were not passive bystanders. They propelled the New Labour agenda and rose rapidly through the ministerial ranks. Given the Marxist antagonism towards individual freedoms, they were unlikely to provide an instinctive defence of British liberty, and more likely to join – if not drive – the imminent assault.
If what one commentator has called the ‘liberty reflex’ was replaced with a Marxist disposition amongst a leading cabal in government, there was a further – more surreptitious – thread running through the New Labour machine, most notably Tony Blair, which would further erode the British tradition of liberty from an altogether different direction. The new Prime Minister was determined to ‘lead in Europe’, putting Britain at the vanguard of European policy-making after years of Conservative foot-dragging. While successive administrations had sought to ignore the growing irritant created by adverse rulings, and the increasing rate of dubious case law, from the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, the incoming government took active steps to increase the flow by enacting the Human Rights Act in 1998, thereby incorporating the European Convention and all its case law directly into UK law. The government was palpably relaxed about the prospect of importing the European approach to human rights, grounded in the social democratic tradition. It ignored the risk of diluting the British liberal tradition through an expansive European approach to human rights that pursued social and economic justice, exponentially extending the scope of ‘rights’ and inflating – rather than restraining – the role of the state.
While ideological baggage and European strategy boded ill for British liberties, New Labour tactics would only make matters worse. Tony Blair, Gordon Brown and the other architects of New Labour correctly calculated that winning back public confidence in the Labour Party meant seizing the centre ground of politics. In order to achieve this, a policy of triangulation was constructed. In crude terms, the electoral plan of attack involved dumping the most obvious outward trappings of the party’s socialist heritage, outflanking the Conservative Party by matching, if not surpassing, its tough stance on crime and security and promising Labour’s grassroots supporters a step change in investment in public services – a more subtle and publicly palatable means of redistributing a large volume of the nation’s wealth than a sustained programme of nationalization.
The second element in this equation would tempt the government, time and time again, to embark on grandiose security gestures that rode roughshod over fundamental liberties with negligible countervailing benefits in terms of public safety. The third element, massive additional spending on public services, would harness the expansion of the idea of human rights, well beyond anything previously recognized in Britain, as a visible vehicle for claiming credit for fighting the social injustice that New Labour claimed to have inherited from the Thatcher years.
The outcome of the election in May 1997 added a further practical consideration, which strengthened the government’s hand in the looming assault on liberty. Having secured a landslide overall majority of 179 seats in the House of Commons, the new administration was well placed to force through virtually any legislation without serious risk of defeat. The sheer volume of new criminal law and security measures, introduced by the new government over the course of a decade, would displace the common law presumption in favour of personal freedom that held sway in this country for centuries.
In this way, a constellation of disparate