Публичная дипломатия США родилась как реакция на успехи конкурирующей идеологии в лице советского коммунизма. В период своего становления в годы холодной войны различные программы в области культуры, образования и информации чаще других использовались Вашингтоном для распространения либерализма и американских ценностей в странах Западной Европы, третьего мира и Восточного блока. Исчезновение СССР изменило природу публичной дипломатии. Ее программы стали носить открыто политический характер и превратились в средство участия во внутренней жизни стран постсоветского пространства. В последние годы публичная дипломатия пережила новые изменения, связанные с попытками правительства США найти механизмы прямого влияния на зарубежных граждан. Программы стратегической коммуникации и цифровая дипломатия стали этими механизмами. Кроме этого, активная внешнеполитическая позиция России подтолкнула Вашингтон вернуться к практике публичной дипломатии периода холодной войны, которая до сих пор остается наиболее эффективной с точки зрения обеспечения национальных интересов США.
История России: взгляд из Америки
Gerald Surh. Recent Studies of Antisemitism and anti-Jewish Violence in Eastern Europe, 1881–1914
Jonathan Dekel-Chen, et al., eds., Anti-Jewish Violence. Rethinking the Pogrom in East European History (2011).
Faith Hillis, Children of Rus’. Right Bank Ukraine and the Invention of the Russian Nation (2013).
John D. Klier, Russians, Jews, & the Pogroms of 1881–1882 (2011).
Natan Meir, Kiev: Jewish Metropolis. A History 1859–1914 (2009).
R. Nemes & D. Unowsky, Sites of European Antisemitism in the Age of Mass politics, 1880–1918 (2014).
Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, The Golden Age Shtetl. A New History of Jewish Life in East Europe (2014).
This review article focuses on two themes in the period before 1914, anti-Jewish violence and antisemitism. The two themes and their mutual reinforcement reached their high point in the 1881–1914 period, influencing not only the most rapid and consequential transformation of the Jewish population but also the unravelling of the Russian Empire in the same period.
Anti-Jewish violence, most dramatically represented by the pogroms concentrated in 1881–2 and 1903–6, was for Russian Jews the most distinctive, dreaded, and priority-setting events of the period. Russian Jews seem almost always to have lived in liminal fear of discrimination and attack, never more so than in the period after 1881. Violence against Jews, its anticipation and aftermath are encountered in all forms of Russian and Jewish writing, fiction and non-fiction, personal and historical, journalistic and epistolary. Pogroms, their foreboding, and their memory gripped and transformed the lives of Russian Jews in late imperial Russia as no other force did or could do.
The violence mounting in that period has been associated and even identified with the intense and widespread antisemitism prevailing in Imperial Russia, among plebeians and patricians alike. The close relationship between antisemitism and anti-Jewish violence has been so obvious that it has become a historiographic code that has often short-circuited broader inquiry. While pogroms can be and have been seen as themselves instances of antisemitism, their close identification has obscured the fact that there were many persons – perhaps the majority – holding antisemitic views but opposed violence against Jews. On the other hand, many of the participants in the violence were not necessarily persuaded antisemites, but simply looters from deprived subaltern groups or passive witnesses unwilling to intervene on the victims’ behalf. The ready explanation of the violence as the product almost exclusively of ethnic prejudice has relegated other circumstances contributing to the violence to secondary status. This has delayed the formation of a balanced and comprehensive view of the many circumstances and the true complexity that gave rise to violence against Jews. Fortunately, however, most of the studies considered here suggest ideas and contribute directly to getting beyond that distorting bias.
The late John Klier’s detailed study of the pogroms of 1881–1882 is the fullest and most significant recent study that both inter-relates and separates the two themes.[190] This is a major, exhaustively researched opus that revises many common views and beliefs about Russia’s first