Fourteen essential books in the history of International Relations. Classics in IR. Galina Kupriyeva

main signpost of political realism is the concept of interest defined in terms of power.

      3. Realism assumes that interest defined as power is an objective category which is universally valid but not with a meaning that is fixed once and for all. Power is the control of man over man.

      4. Political realism is aware of the moral significance of political action. It is also aware of the tension between the moral command the requirements of successful political action.

      5. Political realism refuses to identify the moral aspirations of a particular nation with the moral laws that govern the universe. It is the concept of interest defined in terms of power that saves us from moral excess and political folly.

      6. Political realism differs from other schools of thought such as law, history, economy, and it is the most important one because it deals with the security and survival of the state.

      Firstly, the author defines International politics as a struggle for power. In spite of different goals defined in terms of religious, philosophic, economic or social ideal, power is the immediate aim. However, not all acts that a nations perform toward each other are of political nature. Also, not all nations are equally involved in international politics.

      The author defines power as «man’s control over the minds and actions of other men», and political power as «a psychological relations between those who exercise it and those over whom it is exercised.» (Morgenthau, H, p.30) There are four main distinctions: «between power and influence, between power and force, between usable and unusable power, between legitimate and illegitimate power.» (Morgenthau, H, p.31)

      Secondly, the author gives three basic patterns of politics, either domestic or international – to keep power, to increase power or to demonstrate power. Hence, three types of international policies follow: policy of the Status Quo – to keep power, policy of Imperialism – to acquire more power and policy of Prestige – to demonstrate power.

      Thirdly, the author claims that «nation» is an abstractive term and can not be empirically observed. Therefore, power and foreign policy of a nation is reflected by its representatives in international affairs – politicians or statesmen – «they wield the power and pursue the policies of their nation» (Morgenthau, Hans. p.116).

      Kenneth Waltz «Man, the state and war»

      Kenneth Waltz is the first political scientist who begins to develop systemic approach in IR and further was recognized as the founder of «neo-realism». In the book «Man, the state and war» (1959) he makes a theoretical analysis on three images to International Conflict. Thus, the roots to conflict lie in Human Behavior, Structure of States and International Anarchy.

      The main philosophers who devoted their works to Behavioural approach are Saint Augustine, Spinoza, Neibuhr and Hans Morgenthau. Two tendencies arise from first image analysis. The first is that potential for conflict is found in human nature – men are born seekers of power. The second tendency – as far as human beings behave differently in different situations, they need restraints imposed by government – otherwise they may slaughter each other. Based on these two ideas the assumption on change in political and social structures of state and government proceeds. Social-political institutions are easier to change than nature of humankind.

      The second image focuses on internal organization of states. In many ways, political and social relations within state reflect its foreign policy. Most often, war against an external enemy contributes to unity of state. People feel themselves united, and instead of fighting civil wars and of turning their attention to internal defects, they cast their aggression to a foe in the face of other state.

      The second image is represented by liberal and socialist revisionists’ view. Liberals believe that individual initiatives and liberty contribute to development of peaceful state (Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill). They argue that man living in public society has constantly been improved, and, consequently, all society has been improved. In addition, government should intervene less, giving way to «invisible hand» and free market. The role of government should be limited to the issues of external defense and internal justice. This liberal view is known as «noninterventionist» liberalism. Contrary to the previous view, «interventionist» liberals believe that state should decide affairs of nations. They are more realistic about war and consider that «Wars undertaken on a narrow calculation of state interest are almost certain to be less damaging than wars inspired by a supposedly selfless idealism.»