Table A-22 Measurement of the apparent density of materials.
| Method | Use | Test |
|---|---|---|
| A | For fine granules and powders that can be poured through a small funnel. | Test is performed by pouring the material through a funnel into a cylinder of known volume. The apparent density is calculated by dividing the weight of the material in the cylinder by the volume of the cylinder. |
| B | For coarse, granular materials that either cannot be poured or that pour with difficulty through the funnel from Method A. | Test is performed by pouring the material through a funnel into a cylinder of known volume. The apparent density is calculated by dividing the weight of the material in the cylinder by the volume of the cylinder. |
| C | For coarse flakes, chips, cut fibers, or strands that cannot be tested with Methods A or B. | Test is performed by pouring the material into a graduated cylinder and allowing a 2300-g plunger to pack the material for 1 minute. The apparent density is taken as the mass of the material divided by the settled volume. |
The bulk factor is the ratio of the density of a material after molding to the density of the raw material and provides a measure of the volume change that can be expected during processing.
The apparent density is not an intrinsic property of a material; it can change depending on how the material is handled. For example, a powder poured in to a cylinder will have a particular bulk density; if the cylinder is disturbed, the powder particles will move and usually settle closer together, resulting in a higher bulk density. For this reason, the bulk density of powders is usually reported both as “freely settled” and “tapped” density (where the tapped density refers to the bulk density of the powder after a specified compaction process, usually involving vibration of the container.
Aquaculture
Aquaculture is the raising of fish and other aquatic animals in a controlled environment – it is the farming of fish, shellfish, and other freshwater or marine (saltwater) creatures. Using geothermal water in aquaculture helps keep water temperatures consistent, which increases survival rates and makes the creatures grow faster. Low-temperature geothermal resources that are not hot enough to produce electricity are useful to fish farmers. Animals grown in water of the proper temperature grow faster and larger than those in cold water or water with fluctuating temperatures. They are also more resistant to disease and die less frequently.
Fish farmers with access to geothermal water can use it to regulate the temperatures of their fish ponds. Though the mechanism to accomplish this can be complicated, basically what happens is that the fish farmer opens valves to allow geothermal water to flow into the fish ponds until they reach the desired temperature. The valves are then closed to prevent the water from getting too hot. The mechanism is similar to adding hot water to a bathtub to bring the temperature to the desired level. Water flow can be adjusted throughout the year to account for air temperatures. Most ponds contain some mechanism to circulate the water and keep it all at an even temperature. Aquaculture operations usually have several ponds, which are kept small enough to be heated or cooled easily.
The main species of fish that are raised in geothermal waters are catfish, bass, trout, tilapia, sturgeon, giant freshwater prawns, alligators, snails, coral, and tropical fish. The warmth of geothermal water makes it possible to raise tropical marine (saltwater) species in cold, land-locked places such as Idaho.
Some creatures have a range of temperatures in which they thrive. For example, catfish and shrimp grow at approximately 50 of the optimum rate at temperatures between 20 and 26°C (68 and 79°F) and grow fastest at approximately 32°C (90°F), but they decline at temperatures higher than that. Trout thrive at around 15°C (60°F) but dislike lower or higher temperatures.
Like other direct uses of geothermal water, aquaculture allows an area to make use of groundwater that may not be hot enough to generate electricity, but is still hot enough to be useful as hot water. Arizona, for example, has a great deal of geothermal water that is under 150°C (300°F), which cannot generate electricity, but is very useful in aquaculture.
The fish grown in geothermal fisheries are healthier and stronger than fish grown in unheated fish ponds. Fish farmers can regulate temperature throughout the year to make sure the fish grow to a consistent size year-round. However, fish farmers must be careful to regulate water temperature. The water in and near the pipes bringing in the hot groundwater can get very hot, creating pockets that are too hot for fish. For aquaculture to work well, there must be a source of cool water in addition to the hot water. Some geothermal fisheries collect geothermal water in holding ponds and let it cool in order to regulate pond temperatures. If the water does not circulate evenly, there can also be cold spots. This can make the fish crowd into areas where the temperature is at the right level. The hot pipes also can be dangerous to human workers who must wade into the pools for repairs, feeding, and harvesting.
For the most part, using hot groundwater to heat fish ponds is good for the environment. A farm that uses geothermal water is not burning fossil fuels or other sources of heat to regulate water temperature and is therefore not emitting pollutants. Many geothermal aquaculture operations use water that has already been used by geothermal power plants or heating systems. The water has lost most of its heat but is still hot enough to raise the temperature of the fish ponds, so it can be put to a second use before disposal.
Aquaculture itself has both good and bad aspects for the environment. It takes pressure off wild fisheries, many of which have been severely overfished. In some areas, however, it contributes to pollution of the water.
Economically, using geothermal energy to heat water for aquaculture can have many benefits. Places that use water that has already been used for heating or electricity generation can heat their fish ponds essentially for no cost. They can also enjoy the economic benefit of selling the fish or prawns that they produce. Fish grown in geothermally heated water grow faster than fish in unheated water, so some fish farmers can grow extra fish crops for sale. Heated water makes it possible to grow fish in winter when it ordinarily would not be possible. Selling tropical fish for the pet store market can be quite profitable. Developing nations can export their fish produce for good prices, bringing foreign capital into the country.
See also: Aquasphere, Geothermal Energy.
Aquasphere
The Earth is a unique planet insofar as there is an abundance of water that is necessary to sustaining life on the Earth, and helps tie together the atmosphere, the land (the geosphere), and the oceans and rivers (the aquasphere) into an integrated system. Precipitation, evaporation, freezing and melting, and condensation are all part of the hydrological cycle, which is a never-ending global process of water circulation from clouds to land, to the ocean, and back to the clouds. This cycling of water is intimately linked with energy exchanges among the atmosphere, ocean, and land that determine the climate of the Earth and cause much of natural climate variability. The impacts of climate change and variability on the quality of human life occur primarily through changes in the water cycle.
The water systems of the Earth, often referred to as the aquasphere or the hydrosphere, refer to water in various forms: oceans, lakes, streams, snowpack, glaciers, the polar ice caps, and water under the