Developmental epigenesis is also a bidirectional process. Genetic and biological factors certainly affect psychological and social–cultural functioning; however, psychological and social–cultural factors can also determine the effects of genes and biology on development. Many experts use the term transactional to refer to the way factors across levels affect each other over time (Kerig, 2016; Sameroff, 2000).
To understand the transactional nature of development, consider Anthony, another child with Down syndrome. Anthony’s mother, Anita, was heartbroken when her obstetrician told her that Anthony had this condition (Level 1: Biological). Rather than despair, Anita decided that she was going to maximize her son’s cognitive, social, and behavioral potential by giving him the most enriching early environment that she could provide. Anita spent countless hours talking to Anthony, reading books, listening to music, playing games, and going on outings (Level 3: Social–Cultural).
Anita also learned to capitalize on Anthony’s strengths. For example, she noticed that Anthony acquired skills best through hands-on learning rather than through verbal instruction. Although Anthony acquired language and daily living skills slowly, Anita had high expectations for him. She remained patient and tried to provide structure and help so that Anthony might learn these skills independently. Anita enrolled Anthony in a special needs preschool and was heavily involved throughout his education (Level 2: Psychological). Anthony developed good language and daily living skills and was able to graduate with his high school class. Today, Anthony is employed full-time in the mailroom of a large company, lives independently, and enjoys bowling and fishing with his friends.
Understanding and predicting child development is difficult for two reasons. First, development is influenced by many factors across multiple levels: genes, biology, psychology, family, and society. Second, these factors are constantly changing over time, each interacting with the others. Consequently, no single factor determines children’s outcomes. Instead, the unfolding of development is probabilistic; a person’s developmental outcome can vary depending on the interplay of many biological, psychological, and social–cultural factors. Developmental psychopathologists use the term probabilistic to refer to the complex transaction of factors that shape development over time (Gottlieb & Willoughby, 2006; Rutter & Sroufe, 2000).
Adaptive vs. Maladaptive Behavior
From the perspective of developmental psychopathology, normal and abnormal behavior is determined by the degree to which it promotes children’s competence. Adaptive behavior allows children to develop social, emotional, and behavioral competence over time and meet the changing demands of their environment. Examples of adaptive behavior include toddlers learning to understand other people’s emotional states, school-age children learning to think before acting, and adolescents using moral reasoning to solve interpersonal problems. These behaviors are adaptive because they allow children to understand and interact with their environment in an effective and flexible way (Cicchetti, 2019).
Maladaptive behavior interferes with children’s social, emotional, and behavioral competence or does not meet the changing demands of the environment. Examples of maladaptive behaviors include toddlers who do not understand others’ emotional expressions or withdraw from social interactions, school-age children who impulsively hit others when they are angry, and adolescents who mistreat peers. These behaviors are considered maladaptive because they indicate a failure to develop competencies and they interfere with children’s social–emotional well-being (Cicchetti, 2019).
©iStockphoto.com/rin_photo
Adaptive behavior is determined by the child’s developmental context. Normality and abnormality are dependent on children’s age and level of development (Image 2.2). Consider a 2-year-old boy who refuses to dress in the morning and tantrums when told that he cannot have cookies for breakfast. Although these oppositional behaviors cause parents grief, they are usually not considered abnormal in 2-year-olds. In fact, stubbornness can reflect toddlers’ developmentally appropriate bids for autonomy. However, the same behaviors shown by a 6-year-old child would likely be considered maladaptive and abnormal. In the context of his age and level of development, these behaviors likely reflect problems balancing needs for autonomy with respect for parental authority (Burt, Coatsworth, & Masten, 2016).
Adaptive behavior is also determined by the child’s environmental context. Consider Xavier, a 13-year-old boy who has a history of running away from home, staying out all night, skipping school, and earning low grades. Clearly, Xavier’s behavior is problematic. However, if we discover that Xavier is also experiencing physical abuse at home, we might see how his problematic behavior reflects an attempt to cope with this psychosocial stressor. Specifically, Xavier runs away and stays out all night to escape physical maltreatment. Furthermore, he likely has difficulty completing assignments and attending school because of his stressful home environment. Xavier’s actions are best understood in terms of his environmental context.
Developmental psychopathologists view abnormal development as a deviation from normality. Our ability to recognize, understand, and treat childhood disorders depends on our knowledge of normal child development. Consider George, a 16-year-old boy who begins drinking with friends at parties. Approximately once every month for the past 6 months, George has consumed several alcoholic beverages while partying with friends. He drinks in order to have fun and has never gotten into trouble or put himself in dangerous situations while intoxicated. Consider also Maria, a 14-year-old girl who is dieting to lose weight. Although Maria’s weight is average for a girl her age and height, she is very dissatisfied with her body and feels like she needs to lose at least 15 pounds. Whether we regard George and Maria’s actions as abnormal depends partially on whether their behaviors are atypical of adolescents their age or inconsistent with the environmental demands they face. We need to know something about normal development in adolescents their age to determine if their behavior is atypical and potentially problematic (Masten & Kalstabakken, 2019).
Developmental psychopathologists also believe that abnormal behavior can shed light on normal child and adolescent development. Youths who clearly show delays in mastering developmental tasks or failures in meeting environmental demands can teach us how development typically proceeds. For example, children with autism show unusual deficits in perceiving and interpreting other people’s social behavior. By studying these deficits, researchers are beginning to understand how the ability to process social information develops in infants and children without this condition (Toth & Manly, 2020).
Review
Development is shaped by multiple factors across three broad levels of analysis: biological, psychological, and social–cultural. Development is probabilistic rather than predetermined. Development is also transactional; each factor influences the others over time.
Developmental psychopathologists view behaviors as either adaptive or maladaptive. Adaptive thoughts, feelings, and actions promote children’s competence.
Adaptive and maladaptive behaviors can only be understood in the context of the child’s development and environment. A behavior that was adaptive in one situation or in the past might be maladaptive in another situation or at a different time.
What Affects the Course of Development?
Developmental Pathways
As children grow, they face certain developmental tasks or challenges that depend largely on their age and developmental level. Erik Erikson (1963) outlined some of the most important social and emotional tasks facing individuals as they progress from infancy through old age. For example, the primary developmental task facing infants is to establish