The traditional term ‘parts of speech’ applies to what we call categories of words and lexemes.
We recognise nine categories [1] (Table 1).
Table 1
The two largest and most important categories are the noun and the verb, the two that we have already introduced. The most basic kind of clause contains at least one noun and one verb. The first six categories in list can function as the head of corresponding phrases (noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, etc.). The other three can’t [1].
The verb plays an essential role in English language. Its form and place bear the main information in the sentence. Verbs convey a sense of action or they convey the state of an entity. Verbs may also convey a sense of time. A verb is a kind of word (part of speech) that tells about an action or a state. It is the main part of a sentence: every sentence has a verb. In English, verbs are the only kind of word that changes to show past or present tense [1].
English has two main kinds of verbs: normal verbs (called lexical verbs) and auxiliary verbs. The difference between them is mainly in where they can go in a sentence. Some verbs are in both groups, but there are very few auxiliary verbs in English. There are also two kinds of auxiliary verbs: modal verbs and non-modal verbs. In this textbook we consider lexical verbs in all their categories and observe the place of them in the sentence.
UNIT I
RELATIONS IN THE SENTENCE
WORD ORDER
Sentence is a linguistic unit consisting of one or more words that are grammatically linked. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command or suggestion [2].
Sentence – conceived, explicitly or implicitly, as the largest unit of grammar, or the largest unit over which a rule of grammar can operate (P. H. Matthews).
Word order – used widely of the order of elements within the sentence, whether words or, more commonly, phrases. E. g. the ‘basic word order’ in English is ‘SVO’: i. e. a subject phrase (S), whether one word or many, precedes the verb (V), and an object phrase (O), again whether one word or many, follows it.
Due to the absence of case distinctions word order is practically the only means of distinguishing between the subject and the direct object. The word order in English is direct. The basic pattern of a simple sentence in English is one subject-predicate unit, that is, it has two main (principal) positions: those of the subject and of the predicate. It is the pattern of a two-member sentence. The verb in the predicate position may be intransitive, transitive, ditransitive or a link verb. The structure of the common sentence comprises the members in the following order [2]:
1. The subject;
2. The predicate;
3. Objects;
4. The complement (predicative);
5. Modifiers.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE AGREEMENT
In the English language the predicate agrees with the subject in person and number. Agreement implies that the use of one form necessitates the use of the other (e. g. a singular subject requires a predicate in the singular, plural subjects reqiure a predicate in plural). This rule remains true for all link verbs irrespective of the number of the predicative noun, as in:
Our only guide was the Polar star.
Our only guide was the stars.
In Modern English, with its few inflexions, this agreement is restricted to the present tense apart from the verb to be. The verb to be agrees with the subject both in present and in the past [2].
1. Homogeneous members
– If there are two or more homogeneous subjects connected by the conjunction and or asyndetically the predicate is in the plural.
Her father and mother were obviously haunted and harassed (Galsworthy) [2].
The top of a low black cabinet, the old oak table, the chairs in tawny leather, were littered with the children’s toys, books, and garden garments (Eliot) [2].
NB! If two or more homogeneous subjects are expressed by the infinitives the predicate is used in singular.
To know everything is to know nothing.
To be loved and to be wanted is always good.
– In the sentences where the predicate precedes a number of subjects (commonly used in sentences starting with here or there), the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first.
There is a scope for innovation and change both in the composition and procedures of appellate courts (Bell).
– When two homogeneous subjects are connected by the conjunctions: not only… but (also), neither… nor, either… or, or, nor the predicate agrees with the subject next to it.
Either my sister or my parents are at home.
Either my parents or my sister is at home.
Neither you nor I am right. Neither I nor you are right.
Not only my parents but also my brother knows about it. Not only my brother but also my parents know about it.
Is Tom or Mary eager to meet you at the station?
– When two subjects are connected by the conjunction as well as, rather than, as much as, more than, the predicate agrees with the first one.
My parents as well as my sister are teachers. My sister as well as my parents is a teacher.
The manager as well as/rather than/more than/as much as the members of the board is responsible for the present situation.
– If the subject is modified by two or more attributes, connected by the conjunction and, the predicate is used in plural when two or more things, ideas, people are meant. In this case with uncountable nouns and plural nouns the article is put once, before the first attribute, with countable singular nouns the article is put before each attribute.
A black and a white kitten were playing on the hearth rug. (A black kitten was playing and a white kitten was playing).
The yellow and the red car were badly damaged.
In modern hotels hot and cold water are supplied in every room.
American and Dutch beer are both much lighter than British.
Good and bad tastes are shown by examples.
The Black and Mediterranean Seas never freeze.
If the article is repeated, the reference is to two persons or objects, a plural verb-predicate is used.
The bread and the butter are on the table. (Two separate object are meant).
The