A Manual of the Malay language. Sir William Edward Maxwell

in use for “horse” and “sheep” seem to indicate that those animals were first brought to Malay countries from India. Kûda, horse (Kw. and S. kuda), is derived by Crawfurd from ghora (Hindi), by others from kudra (Tamul). Bîri-bîri (sheep) is said to be borrowed from the Hindi bher, which is itself derived from the Sanskrit bheḍa, a ram, or from bhîru (Sansk.), a goat. Certain fabulous birds and reptiles which belong to the domain of Hindu mythology have their places also in Malay folk-lore; such as garuḍa,26 the eagle of Vishnu, and Jaṭâyu (Malay jintâyu), a fabulous vulture; chandrawâsi, a name given by Malays to a fabulous bird which is heard but never seen, is also evidently of Sanskrit origin. To these nâga, a dragon, may be added (J., S., Bat., Mak., Bu., and D. naga).

      The vegetable kingdom supplies a long list of trees, plants, and flowers which are known to the Malays by Sanskrit names. Some of these are closely connected with another group of words to be noticed presently, namely, those which belong to the department of religion. The use of sweet-smelling flowers is a noticeable feature in the religious worship of the Hindus, and the fact that many flowers held by them to be sacred to the worship of particular gods are called by Malays by the same names which they bear in the temples of India, is a remarkable example of an historical lesson latent in words. It points to the fact, abundantly proved by other evidence, that Brahmanism once held sway where it has long been superseded by the faith of Islam, and that words which have no special significance for the modern Muhammadan Malay were fraught with mystic solemnity for his distant ancestors.

      In many cases, indeed, the Sanskrit names have been applied by the Malays to different plants from those designated by the same expressions in India. In other cases, names unknown in classical Sanskrit, but obviously compounded of Sanskrit words, have been given by the Malays or Javanese. The common native Malay term for “flower” is bûnga; sâri (Javanese sari, Sansk. kesara) and puspa (Sansk. pushpa) have been borrowed from India.

English or Latin.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Michelia champaka	champaka	champaka (dedicated by the Hindus to Krishna; one of Kamadeva’s arrows is tipped with it)	J. and S. champaka; Mak. champaga.
Jonesia asoka	ângsôka	açoka (sacred to Mahadeva, and held in the highest veneration by the Hindus)	J. angsoka and soka.
Mesua ferrea	nâgasârî (Rigg supposes the Malay plant to be Acacia pedunculata; Marsden, Acacia aurea).	nâgakesara (“The delicious odour of its blossoms justly gives them a place in the quiver of Kamadeva.”—Sir William Jones)
Jasminum sambac (jasmine)	malâtî	mâlatî (Jasminum grandiflorum27)	J. malati; S. melati.
Arabian jasmine (Nyctanthes?)	melor	mâdhura (cf. malura, Cratæva religiosa)	J. menur; Kw. menur, silver.
Ocymum basilicum (holy basil)	sulasi	tulasî (sacred to Krishna)	J. selasih and telasih; S. selasi; Mak. tolasi; Tag. solasi.
Uvaria odorata (or cananga)	kenânga	kânana28 (a forest)	J. kenonga; Mak. and Bu. kananga.
Santalum album, sandal-wood	chandâna	chandana (“Perpetually mentioned in the most ancient books of the Hindus as flourishing on the mountains of Malaya”—Sir Wm. Jones)	J. and S. chendana; Tag. and Bis. sandana.
Plumieria acutifolia	kambôja	kâmboja (a kind of mimosa)	S. kamboja.
Nelumbium speciosum, lotus.	saroja	saroja	J. saroja.
Vitex trifoliata	lagundi 29	nirgandhi (“Which Bontius calls lagondi.”—Sir Wm. Jones). -Gandhi is used in the latter part of a compound word with same meaning that gandha has: “smell,” “odour”	J. legundi; Bat. gundi.
Alpinia galanga, or Curcuma reclinata	gâdamâla	gandha, smell; mâlâ, a garland
Justicia gandarusa	gandarusa	gandha, smell; rusa (Malay), a deer(?)	S. gandarusa
Hibiscus abelmoschus	gandapûra	gandha, smell; pura, calix of a flower	Mak. gandapura
Hedichium coronarium	gandasûlî	gandha, smell	S. gandasoli.
Liquidambar altingiana	rasamala	surasa, sweet, elegant; mâlâ, a garland
Carthamus tinctorius, safflower	kasumba	kusumbha	J., S., Mak., and D. kasumba; Tag. kasubha; Bis. kasobha.
Crocus sativus, saffron	kumkumâ	kuṃkuma	J. kamkuma; Mak. kuma.
Alyxia stellata; an odoriferous root used in medicine	pûlasâri	phul (Hind.), flower; sari (Javanese), from kesara (Sansk.), a flower
Tectonia grandis, teak	jâtî	jâti (synonymous with malati), Jasminum grandiflorum	J., S., Bat., Mak., Bu., and D. jati.
Pterocarpus indicus	ângsâna	asana (Terminalia alata tomentosa)	J. and S. angsana.
Borassus flabelliformis	lontar	tâla	J. and S. lontar; Bat. otal; Mak. tala; Bu. ta; Tag. tual.
Eugenia jambu, roseapple	jambû	jambu	J., S., Mak., and D. jambu; Bu. jampu; Tag. dambo; Bat. jambu-jambu, fringe; Bu. jambo-jambo, fringe, plume.
Mangifera indica, mango	mampelam	from Telugu, mampalam; Sansk. mahâphala, “great fruit”	J. pelem; S. ampelem.
Spondias myrobolan (or mangifera)	âmra	âmra (the mango, Mangifera indica); âmrâta (Spondias mangifera)
Punica granatum, pomegranate	dalîma	dâḍima and dâlima
Zizyphus jujuba	bidâra	vidara	J. widara; S. bidara.
Cucurbita lagenaria, gourd, pumpkin	lâbû	alâbu	S. labu; Bat. tabu-tabu; Malg. tawu.
Tricosanthes laciniosa	patôla	paṭola
Cassia fistula	biraksa	vṛiksha (a tree)
Emblica officinalis	malâka	âmalaka (Emblic myrobalan)	S. malaka; Bat. malakah.

      Pâlas, palâsa, and palâsang are Malay names for trees of different kinds, not one of which corresponds botanically with the Sanskrit palâça (Butea frondosa, a tree which is held by Hindus to be peculiarly venerable and holy). The preceding list affords several illustrations of a similar misuse of terms. To it might be added several words borrowed from other Indian languages, such as nânas, pine-apple (Hind. ananas), bilimbing (Tamul bilimbi), &c., &c.30

      Marsden has remarked on the number of Sanskrit words expressive of the feelings and emotions of the human mind which occur in Malay, and Arabic also furnishes several. Either their synonymous native terms have been lost, or the Malays, at the period of Indian influence, had not reached that stage of civilisation when man commences to analyse and name the emotions he experiences and sees experienced by others. Good and bad qualities, in the same way and for the same reason, seem often to bear Sanskrit appellations. The following list does not profess to be complete:—

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Pleasure, to be pleased	sûka	sukha	J., S., and D. suka
Joy, rejoiced	suka-chita	sukha-chit (chit = thought, the heart)
Sorrow, grief	dûka	duhkha (pain)	J. and S. duka.
Do.	duka-chita	duhkha-chit	duhkha-chit
Care, anxiety, concern	chinta	chintâ (thought)	J. chipta; S. chinta; Mak. chita; D. and Tag. sinta.
Passionately in love	berâhî	virahin (suffering separation)	J. birahi.
Angry	murka	mûrkha (stupidity)	J. murka, greedy, dissatisfied.
Hope	âsa	âçâ	Tag. asa.
Love	âsmâra	smara	J. and S. asmara.
Avarice, covetousness	lôba	lobha	Kw.