Deportation. Torrie Hester

      

      DEPORTATION

      DEPORTATION

      THE ORIGINS OF U.S. POLICY

      TORRIE HESTER

      UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA PRESS

      PHILADELPHIA

      Copyright © 2017 University of Pennsylvania Press

      All rights reserved.

      Except for brief quotations used for purposes of review or scholarly citation, none of this book may be reproduced in any form by any means without written permission from the publisher.

      Published by

      University of Pennsylvania Press

      Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-4112

       www.upenn.edu/pennpress

      Printed in the United States of America

      on acid-free paper

      1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2

       A Cataloging-in-Publication record is available from the Library of Congress

      ISBN 978-0-8122-4916-3

      Contents

       List of Abbreviations

       Introduction

       Chapter 1. Creating U.S. Deportation Policy

       Chapter 2. The International Regime

       Chapter 3. Deportation and Citizenship Status

       Chapter 4. From Protection to Punishment

       Chapter 5. The Limits of Deportation Power

       Chapter 6. From Racial to Economic Grounds

       Conclusion

       Notes

       Index

       Acknowledgments

      Abbreviations

AR-CGI	U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Immigration, Annual Report of the Commissioner General of Immigration (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1894–1924).
CAN	Immigration Branch, RG 76, National Archives of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.
CCF-AZ	Criminal Case Files, 1869–1911, Arizona Territorial Court, Third Judicial District, Records of the District Courts of the United States, RG 21, National Archives, Pacific Region, Laguna Niguel, Calif.
CCF-CA	Criminal Case Files, 1907–1929, Southern District of California, Southern Division (Los Angeles), Records of the District Courts of the United States, RG 21, National Archives, Pacific Region, Laguna Niguel, Calif.
ChEx-AZ	Chinese Exclusion Case Files, 1897–1911, Arizona Territorial Court, Fourteenth Judicial District, Records of the District Courts of the United States, RG 21, National Archives, Pacific Region, Laguna Niguel, Calif.
DF	Central Decimal File Subjects 1910–1949, Central Files 1910–January 1963, U.S. Department of State Records, RG 59, National Archives, College Park, Md.
DS	Diplomatic Correspondence, Central Files of the Department of State, 1778–1963, RG 59, National Archives, College Park, Md.
FRUS	U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1886–1924).
FSP	Records of the Foreign Service Posts of the Department of State, State Department and Foreign Affairs Records, RG 84, National Archives, College Park, Md.
ILR	U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Immigration, Immigration Laws and Rules (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1907–1924).
INS	Records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, RG 85, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
USC-AZ	U.S. Commissioners Dockets and Minutes, 1891–1912, Arizona Territorial Court, Third Judicial District, Records of District Courts of the United States, RG 21, National Archives, Pacific Region, Laguna Niguel, Calif.
USSCRB	U.S. Supreme Court Records & Briefs on Microfiche (Bethesda, Md.: Congressional Information Service, 1984–present).

      Introduction

      In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, U.S. officials created a national deportation policy. They were not alone in this endeavor. In the same period, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, Britain, and Germany, among others, also either revised existing immigrant removal policies or developed new ones.¹ Their efforts made deportation into an internationally recognized form of removal, which was unique in law, scope, motivation, and significance. The act of deporting individuals thereafter became one of the most far-reaching powers exercised by the United States government. Between 1892, when the U.S. government first started to establish its federal deportation policy, and 2015, the United States deported more than fifty million immigrants, almost 95 percent of them since 1970.²

      This book examines the power of deportation, the national and international policies created to administer this power, and the changing meaning of deportability—the status of being deportable—during the first, formative decades of the deportation regime.³

      Before 1882, the U.S. government had never formally deported anyone. That year, in the first of a series of laws, Congress created the power to deport Chinese workers. By 1888, policy makers had enhanced their power to deport all immigrants, and, over the next thirty years, the government expanded restrictions so that, by 1917, deportation provisions variously targeted Chinese workers, anarchists, suspected prostitutes, public charges, and contract laborers, to mention only a few of the categories. Immigration agents carrying out new federal policy deported several hundred or, at the most, a few thousand people each year. They deported